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Cardiovascular responses to challenge and threat have been used extensively in psychophysiological research. In this meta-analysis, we scrutinized the body of evidence for the role of challenge and threat hemodynamic responses in predicting positive behavioral outcomes, i.e., performance quality. We accounted for cardiac output (CO), total peripheral resistance (TPR), and Challenge-Threat Index (CTI). With 17 articles covering 19 studies (total N = 1045), we observed that the literature might have been biased towards positive results. After we excluded outlying studies and compensated for missing null-effect studies, we found that the mean standardized coefficient, corrected with the trim-and-fill method, was r = 0.14 for CO, r = -0.13 for TPR, and r = 0.10 for CTI. This indicated relatively small but stable effects of cardiovascular responses in the facilitation of successful performance. Moderator analyses indicated that TPR and CTI produced stronger effects in non-experimental studies. We also found that effects were not moderated by levels of engagement (indexed by heart rate and pre-ejection period), task domain (cognitive vs. behavioral) and measurement method. In summary, our results supported the general validity of the biopsychosocial model in the prediction of behavioral outcomes. However, they also indicated limitations of the empirical evidence and a significant bias in the literature.

Massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) escapists are individuals who indulge in the MMORPG environment to avoid real world problems. Though a relationship between escapism and deteriorated well-being has been established, little is known about particular pathways that mediate this relationship. In the current study, we examined this topic by testing an integrative model of MMORPG escapism, which includes game realism beliefs, gaming time, offline social support, and online social support for offline problems. MMORPG players (N=1,056) completed measures of escapist motivation, game realism beliefs, social support, well-being, and reported gaming time. The tested structural equation model had a good fit to the data. We found that individuals with escapist motivation endorsed stronger game realism beliefs and spent more time playing MMORPGs, which, in turn, increased online support but decreased offline social support. Well-being was favorably affected by both online and offline social support, although offline social support had a stronger effect. The higher availability of online social support for offline problems did not compensate for the lower availability of offline support among MMORPG escapists. Understanding the psychological factors related to depletion of social resources in MMORPG players can help optimize MMORPGs as leisure activities.

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