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Despite a long history of volcanic debris flows on the northern flank of San Vicente Volcano, El Salvador, authorities and communities were ill-prepared for the lahars that occurred on Nov. 7-8, 2009. More than 250 people were killed by lahars resulting from shallow landslides, not to mention millions of dollars (US) in damage to houses, agriculture, and infrastructure. After the disaster, significant aid was invested in the region to reduce risk in future disasters. This case study uses the ethnographic tools of qualitative interviews, participant observation, and review of institutional documents to analyze two particular aspects of disaster risk reduction strategies in the town of Verapaz: 1) relocation of at-risk residents led by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, and 2) hazard monitoring and emergency management training programs led by Civil Protection, the University of El Salvador, and NGOs. The relocation effort, while effective at reducing physical vulnerability to debris flows, failed to incorporate livelihood, social networks, and cultural ties to homes in their project design and implementation. Since diverse livelihoods are keys to survival, and tightly-knit social networks help families share responsibilities and withstand shocks during hardships, many families returned to the high-risk area or opted not to relocate. Others have adapted using unanticipated strategies to benefit from the resettlement effort. On the other hand, the emergency management training and education programs valued local input, knowledge, and action, which has helped increase awareness and improved the overall capacity to manage emergencies through wide, local participation. The different approaches used in the two risk reduction initiatives reveal important lessons regarding the importance of community participation. Challenges derive from narrow understandings of vulnerability on the part of disaster risk reduction experts, who neglected to consider and understand kin networks and residence patterns that help maintain diverse livelihoods, as well as ensure safety and security. As demonstrated in the 2011 Tropical Depression 12E, effective public engagement and empowerment helped bridge the knowledge, awareness, and preparedness gaps that existed prior to the 2009 disaster.

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The San Vicente volcano in central El Salvador has a recurring and destructive pattern of landslides and debris flows occurring on the northern slopes of the volcano, and in recent memory, there have been at least seven major destructive debris flows. There has been no known attempt to study the inherent stability of these slopes and determine the factors that might lead to slope instability. Past events on the volcano were used to perform a 2D slope stability back analysis and to estimate the unknown model parameters. This analysis confirmed that the surface materials of the volcano are highly permeable and have very low shear strength. Additionally, the analysis provided insight into the groundwater table behavior during a rainstorm. Slope geometry, rainfall totals and initial groundwater table location were found to have the greatest effect on stability. A methodology is outlined for creating a stability chart to be used during rainfall events for monitoring slope stability. This chart could be used by local authorities in the event of a known extreme rainfall event to help make evacuation decisions. Finally, recommendations are given to improve the methodology for future application in other areas as well as in central El Salvador.

ABSTRACT:The strengths and common challenges faced by Latin American volcanologists that assume a variety of roles in the volcanic risk reduction context were discussed in the workshop "PASI 2011: Open Vent Volcanoes ". The event was held in Costa Rica with the participation of professionals from most countries of the American Pacific coast plus Argentina, the UK, Norway and Sweden. Several issues were specifically addressed, which allowed to discuss needs in five topics: 1) Lack of financial, human and technical resources at the observatories in the Latin American region; 2) Governmental and non-governmental programs' cooperation between technical and academic organizations; 3) Need for regional coordination, 4) The role of volcanologists as communicators and their interaction with other stakeholders in volcanic risk management, and 5) The contribution of the social sciences and the creation of multidisciplinary groups in the volcanological observatories. The Pacific margin of the American continent is an area highly exposed to volcanic activity, including some of the most important cities in the continent. Nevertheless, the institutions in charge of studying and monitoring the volcanic activity and hazards in many of the countries of this region face severe limitations to carry out their work. For the majority of Latin American countries, the large number of potentially active volcanoes and the reduced number of volcanologists who work in their monitoring, become one of the main limitations. The cooperation between observatories, and with universities and research centers, has helped to cover this need, at least partially. Beyond their scientific and technical role as physical and natural sciences experts, the volcanologists have also been involved in tasks that require the development of other skills, mainly as communicators of information related to volcanic risk. This has led to an increase in