The Mezmaiskaya cave is located on the North Caucasus near the border that divides Europe and Asia. Previously, fossil remains for two Neanderthals were reported from Mezmaiskaya Cave. A tooth from the third archaic hominin specimen (Mezmaiskaya 3) was retrieved from layer 3 in Mezmaiskaya Cave. We performed genome sequencing of Mezmaiskaya 3. Analysis of partial nuclear genome sequence revealed that it belongs to a Homo sapiens neanderthalensis female. Based on a high-coverage mitochondrial genome sequence, we demonstrated that the relationships of Mezmaiskaya 3 to Mezmaiskaya 1 and Stajnia S5000 individuals were closer than those to other Neanderthals. Our data demonstrate the close genetic connections between the early Middle Palaeolithic Neanderthals that were replaced by genetically distant later group in the same geographic areas. Based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) data, we suggest that Mezmaiskaya 3 was the latest Neanderthal individual from the early Neanderthal’s branches. We proposed a hierarchical nomenclature for the mtDNA haplogroups of Neanderthals. In addition, we retrieved ancestral mtDNA mutations in presumably functional sites fixed in the Neanderthal clades, and also provided the first data showing mtDNA heteroplasmy in Neanderthal specimen.

The Epipaleolithic industries of the Caucasus, which have similar technical and typological characteristics, contain also a specific set of lithic points, which includes mainly symmetrically retouched points, the Gravette and microgravette points, and Vachons points, as well as more rare shouldered points and some other diverse forms. The majority of previous functional analyses of the Late Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic lithic points did not involve the study of correlation between the point morphological type and its function. The authors focus on the correlation between the point types and their functions, taking into account a fractional typological division of the tools. The preliminary results of the functional (use-wear) analysis of lithic points from Layer 1–3 (17/16–12/11 ka) in the Mezmaiskaya Cave indicate that all the analyzed symmetrically retouched points can be identified as piercing weapons tips. Other point forms have more diverse functions, although more than half of the Gravette, microgravette and Vachons points were also used as piercing weapons tips.

A comprehensive study of Paleolithic sites using methods from different disciplines makes it possible to reconstruct the time, climate and paleogeography of the area where sites are located, to make assumptions about the strategies of life support and mobility of human groups. The study of stone industries, involving not only the standard technical and typological analysis, but also traceology, provides new data on the function of tools and the occupations of Paleolithic people at the sites. The authors of the current paper used this integrated approach to reconstruct the economic activities of Homo sapiens at the Epipaleolithic site opened recently at Psytuaje Rockshelter in the Elbrus region (NorthCentral Caucasus, Republic of Kabardino-Balkaria). Lithic industry of Layer 2 corresponds to the Epipaleolithic age of this site. The studies carried out show that people here were not only engaged in the knapping of flint and obsidian and the manufacture of tools, but also actively used these tools for butchering hunting prey, possibly processing wood and skins. The study of raw materials and faunal strategies shows that human knew well the resources of the region and actively exploited them.