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Canada’s Conservative government faced its first substantive controversy in its handling of the evacuation of Canadians from Lebanon during the July 2006 conflict in that country. Within a year, another controversy was spurred by the passport requirements of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (in force since 2007). Upon applying for their passports, some people discovered that their Canadian citizenship was in doubt. Both cases raised similar questions in public debate and policy: what constitutes a Canadian citizen, what role do factors surrounding one’s birth and kinship ties have on one’s claim to citizenship and what obligations or attachments does a person have to undertake in order to be a citizen? But the cases also exposed differing responses towards the Canadians evacuated from Lebanon and the ‘Lost Canadians’ that reflect a racialized and ethnicized hierarchy of Canadian citizenship.

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Since the 1990s, the EU has been gradually transferring to neighbouring countries parts of the burden of securing its internal order from illegal migrants, terrorists, criminal groups and other “threats.” It has done so using policy transfers and foreign relations mechanisms. The European Union, seeking to create an “area of freedom, security, and justice” in the region, exports the burden of migration management to its neighbouring countries and thus creates security threats – if not real then perceived – for these countries. The case of Ukraine demonstrates that EU policies of shifting the burden of international migration management to its neighbours can destabilize the societal security of countries that lack the experience and instruments to effectively deal with migration. Rather than shifting the burden of responsibility to the neighbouring states, the EU should prioritize co-operation and assistance to expand the area of freedom, justice and security on the European continent.