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Increasing evidence indicates that the brain regulates peripheral immunity. Yet, it remains unclear whether and how the brain represents the state of the immune system. Here, we show that immune-related information is stored in the brain’s insular cortex (InsCtx). Using activity-dependent cell labeling in mice (FosTRAP), we captured neuronal ensembles in the InsCtx that were active under two different inflammatory conditions (DSS-induced colitis and Zymosan-induced peritonitis). Chemogenetic reactivation of these neuronal ensembles was sufficient to broadly retrieve the inflammatory state under which these neurons were captured. Thus, we show that the brain can encode and initiate specific immune responses, extending the classical concept of immunological memory to neuronal representations of immunity.

The review on avian gastric yeast (AGY) aimed to collect and update available information about this infection from clinical point of view which can help for better understanding of the disease. Macrorhabdus ornithogaster (M. ornithogaster) is the causative agent of proventriculitis in birds. The orga­nism is large, rod-like, classified as anamorphic ascomycetous yeast. Clinical signs may vary from acute with sudden death or chronic wasting. Diarrhoea or enteritis has also been reported in infected birds. Birds can have other concurrent infections (enteric parasites, bacteria or viruses). Gross lesions may include proventricular oedema, hyperaemia, or haemorrhage, with overproduction of mucus accumulated in the proventricular lumen. The proventriculus may be dilated with or without ulceration in mucosa. The organism can be cultured on De Man, Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) agar, but it is easily detected in Gram’s, periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) and Giemsa stained proventricular/ventricular junction, or isthmus sections. Histological changes are more prominent in the ventriculus. Affected birds have marked disruption of the koilin layer with disorganisation and degeneration, and demonstrate large numbers of yeasts with matchstick or logjam appearance. The organism can be detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The disease is common in budgerigars, canaries, finches, and parrotlets. Organisms are identified retrospectively in approximately one-fourth of canaries and bud­ge­rigars. The infection has also been reported in chickens, partridges, and ostriches but mildly in chickens. The affected birds can be successfully treated with amphotericin B.

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