Objective: To evaluate the greenhouse gas emission (GHGE) of diets in Dutch girls, boys, women and men and to explore associations with diet composition. Design: Descriptive analyses for the total population as well as stratified for gender, age and dietary environmental load. Setting: The Netherlands. Subjects: Dutch children and adults aged 7-69 years (n 3818). Results: The GHGE of daily diets was on average 3·2 kg CO 2 -equivalents (CO 2 e) for girls, 3·6 kg CO 2 e for boys, 3·7 kg CO 2 e for women and 4·8 kg CO 2 e for men. Meat and cheese contributed about 40 % and drinks (including milk and alcoholic drinks) 20 % to daily GHGE. Considerable differences in environmental loads of diets existed within age and gender groups. Persons with higher-GHGE diets consumed more (in quantity of foods and especially drinks) than their counterparts of a similar sex and age with low-GHGE diets. Major differences between high-and low-GHGE diets were in meat, cheese and dairy consumption as well as in soft drinks (girls, boys and women) and alcoholic drinks (men). Of those, differences in meat consumption determined the differences in GHGE most. Diets with higher GHGE were associated with higher saturated fat intake and lower fibre intake Conclusions: GHGE of daily diets in the Netherlands is between 3 and 5 kg CO 2 e, with considerable differences between individuals. Meat, dairy and drinks contribute most to GHGE. The insights of the study may be used in developing (age-and gender-specific) food-based dietary guidelines that take into account both health and sustainability aspects.

Including risk factors in RRR and RF-CTA resulted in small differences in food groups, contributing to similar patterns that showed in general stronger associations with CAD than PCA and KCA, respectively.

Health councils recommend higher fish consumption because of its associated health benefits. However, overfishing is considered the main threat to marine fisheries. To answer to the global fish demand, cultivated fish production continues to grow and may come with environmental concerns. This study aims to evaluate environmental sustainability and n-3 long chain (≥C 20 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA) content of current fish consumption in the Netherlands. Fish consumption was assessed on two non-consecutive days by 24-hour recalls in the Dutch National Food Consumption Survey 2007-2010 (n = 3819, aged 7-69 yr). Fish products consumed were classified according to species and types of fishery. We evaluated greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) and land use, calculated via life cycle assessments. Fish stocks and biodiversity were taken into account via sustainability labels. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) contents in fish were calculated based on analyses available from food composition databases and literature. The Dutch average consumption is 6-15 g fish per person per day, of mostly wild-caught fish. Large variations exist between fish species in GHGE and n-3 LC-PUFA contents, and are independent of the type of fishery. Land use is higher for cultivated fish. Cultivated salmon contains significantly more n-3 LC-PUFA and total fat than wild-caught salmon. For most species evaluated, except for mackerel and catfish, fish with a sustainability label is available. Our results suggest that herring, wild-caught and cultivated salmon with MSC/ASC logo are a reasonable choice from the combined perspective of n-3 LC-PUFA content and the selected environmental indicators.

Food has a considerable environmental impact. Diets with less meat and dairy reduce the load on the environment but may give nutritional challenges. Risk groups for inadequate micronutrient intakes include children. In a modeling study, we estimated the load of various dietary patterns on environmental aspects as well as on nutritional adequacy.Energy and nutrient intake and environmental impact (land use and greenhouse gas emission (GHGE)) were assessed for actual consumption patterns (reference scenario) and for two replacement scenarios. In the replacement scenarios, 30% or 100% of meat and dairy foods were randomly replaced by comparable plant-derived foods. Data from the Dutch National Food Consumption Survey in 1267 children aged 2-6 yr (2005)(2006) were included and combined with food composition data and environmental loads.Full replacement of meat and dairy foods by plant-derived foods resulted in substantial lower environmental impact (land use and greenhouse gas emission) when compared to the actual situation (see figure 1). In children, estimated saturated fatty acids intake was 26% lower and fiber intake 29% higher. After 100% meat and dairy replacement by plant foods, children's mean intakes of calcium, zinc and vitamin B1 decreased with 5-13%, and intake of vitamin B12 with 49%, while intake of iron was 10% higher. Calcium intake was below and vitamin B12 above recommendations in all scenarios for children. In girls aged 4-6 y, 100% meat and dairy replacement resulted in 15% and 20% of children with inadequate intakes for zinc and vitamin B1. Plant derived iron might be less bioavailable than iron from animal derived foods. Replacement of meat and dairy by plant-derived foods is beneficial for the environment and for health by lowering saturated fatty acids intake and by increasing the fibre level. Alertness is needed with respect to adequacy of zinc and vitamin B1 intakes in young girls and with respect to the reduced bioavailability of iron. Fig. 1. Estimated changes in environmental (evaluated for meat and dairy and replacing foods) and nutritional (evaluated for total diets) impacts after meat and dairy replacements.