Ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) provide services that are critical to food production, and they fulfill an ecological role as a food source for predators. The richness, António O. Soares and Danny Haelewaters contributed equally to this work.

Parasitism is one of the most diverse and abundant modes of life, and of great ecological and evolutionary importance. Notwithstanding, large groups of parasites remain relatively understudied. One particularly unique form of parasitism is hyperparasitism, where a parasite is parasitized itself. Bats (Chiroptera) may be parasitized by bat flies (Diptera: Hippoboscoidea), obligate blood-sucking parasites, which in turn may be parasitized by hyperparasitic fungi, Laboulbeniales (Ascomycota: Laboulbeniomycetes). In this study, we present the global tritrophic associations among species within these groups and analyze their host specificity patterns. Bats, bat flies, and Laboulbeniales fungi are shown to form complex networks, and sixteen new associations are revealed. Bat flies are highly host-specific compared to Laboulbeniales. We discuss possible future avenues of study with regard to the dispersal of the fungi, abiotic factors influencing the parasite prevalence, and ecomorphology of the bat fly parasites.

Scientists ought to apply universally accepted definitions to technical terms to enable precise communication and discussion. Throughout history, many definitions have shifted, such as those of important terms in evolutionary biology, modes of life, and the nature of interactions. Conversely, throughout history, important terms have been used without proper definition. Two such terms are parasites and pathogens. An extensive body of literature considers parasites and pathogens to be categorically negative, which has resulted in definitions that lack objectivity and limit a full understanding of the biology of these organisms. Different interpretations have resulted in shifting definitions, in turn causing confusion. Here, we present the remarkable history of both definitions, an overview of alternative definitions put forward throughout history, and a working definition for both terms. We find that the line between what is a parasite or a pathogen is often blurry, and is additionally complicated due to the multi-modal nature of interactions.

BackgroundClavicornaltica is a genus of very small flea beetles living in the leaf litter layer of Asian forests, easily sampled with Winkler extraction. The genus is presumably very rich in species, but their taxonomy is hampered by their small size and morphological uniformity.New informationOn a ‘taxon expedition’-style field course at Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre in Brunei Darussalam (Borneo), a new species, Clavicornaltica belalongensis n. sp., was discovered and taxonomically treated by the course participants. We also present the first DNA barcodes for the genus.