Terrestrial ecosystems rich in natural organic matter (NOM) can act as a sink for As. Recently, the complexation of trivalent As by sulfhydryl groups of NOM was proposed as the main mechanism for As-NOM interactions in anoxic S- and NOM-rich environments. Here we tested the molecular-scale interaction of bisulfide (S(-II)) with NOM and its consequences for arsenite (As(III)) binding. We reacted 0.2 mol C/L peat and humic acid (HA) with up to 5.8 mM S(-II) at pH 7 and 5, respectively, and subsequently equilibrated the reaction products with 55 μM As(III) under anoxic conditions. The speciation of S and the local coordination environment of As in the solid phase were studied by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Our results document a rapid reaction of S(-II) with peat and HA and the concomitant formation of reduced organic S species. These species were highly reactive toward As(III). Shell fits of As K-edge extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectra revealed that the coordination environment of trivalent As was progressively occupied by S atoms. Fitted As-S distances of 2.24-2.34 Å were consistent with sulfhydryl-bound As(III). Besides As(III) complexation by organic monosulfides, our data suggests the formation of nanocrystalline As sulfide phases in HA samples and an As sorption process for both organic sorbents in which As(III) retained its first-shell oxygens. In conclusion, this study documents that S(-II) reaction with NOM can greatly enhance the ability of NOM to bind As in anoxic environments.

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Volcanic edifices are abundant on rocky bodies of the inner solar system. In the cold outer solar system, volcanism can occur on solid bodies with a water-ice shell, but derived cryovolcanic constructs have proved elusive. We report the discovery, using Dawn Framing Camera images, of a landform on dwarf planet Ceres that we argue represents a viscous cryovolcanic dome. Parent material of the cryomagma is a mixture of secondary minerals, including salts and water ice. Absolute model ages from impact craters reveal that extrusion of the dome has occurred recently. Ceres' evolution must have been able to sustain recent interior activity and associated surface expressions. We propose salts with low eutectic temperatures and thermal conductivities as key drivers for Ceres' long-term internal evolution.

The dwarf planet (1) Ceres, the largest object in the main asteroid belt with a mean diameter of about 950 kilometres, is located at a mean distance from the Sun of about 2.8 astronomical units (one astronomical unit is the Earth-Sun distance). Thermal evolution models suggest that it is a differentiated body with potential geological activity. Unlike on the icy satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, where tidal forces are responsible for spewing briny water into space, no tidal forces are acting on Ceres. In the absence of such forces, most objects in the main asteroid belt are expected to be geologically inert. The recent discovery of water vapour absorption near Ceres and previous detection of bound water and OH near and on Ceres (refs 5-7) have raised interest in the possible presence of surface ice. Here we report the presence of localized bright areas on Ceres from an orbiting imager. These unusual areas are consistent with hydrated magnesium sulfates mixed with dark background material, although other compositions are possible. Of particular interest is a bright pit on the floor of crater Occator that exhibits probable sublimation of water ice, producing haze clouds inside the crater that appear and disappear with a diurnal rhythm. Slow-moving condensed-ice or dust particles may explain this haze. We conclude that Ceres must have accreted material from beyond the 'snow line', which is the distance from the Sun at which water molecules condense.

On 6 March 2015, Dawn arrived at Ceres to find a dark, desiccated surface punctuated by small, bright areas. Parts of Ceres’ surface are heavily cratered, but the largest expected craters are absent. Ceres appears gravitationally relaxed at only the longest wavelengths, implying a mechanically strong lithosphere with a weaker deep interior. Ceres’ dry exterior displays hydroxylated silicates, including ammoniated clays of endogenous origin. The possibility of abundant volatiles at depth is supported by geomorphologic features such as flat crater floors with pits, lobate flows of materials, and a singular mountain that appears to be an extrusive cryovolcanic dome. On one occasion, Ceres temporarily interacted with the solar wind, producing a bow shock accelerating electrons to energies of tens of kilovolts.