a b s t r a c t Solar wind protons are implanted directly into the top 100 nm of the lunar near-surface region, but can either quickly diffuse out of the surface or be retained, depending upon surface temperature and the activation energy, U, associated with the implantation site. In this work, we explore the distribution of activation energies upon implantation and the associated hydrogen-retention times; this for comparison with recent observation of OH on the lunar surface. We apply a Monte Carlo approach: for simulated solar wind protons at a given local time, we assume a distribution of U values with a central peak, U c and width, U w , and derive the fraction retained for long periods in the near-surface. We find that surfaces characterized by a distribution with predominantly large values of U (>1 eV) like that expected at defect sites will retain implanted H (to likely form OH). Surfaces with the distribution predominantly at small values of U (<0.2 eV) will quickly diffuse away implanted H. However, surfaces with a large portion of activation energies between 0.3 eV < U < 0.9 eV will tend to be H-retentive in cool conditions but transform into H-emissive surfaces when warmed (as when the surface rotates into local noon). These mid-range activation energies give rise to a diurnal effect with diffusive loss of H at noontime. Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).

[1] Determining the plasma environment within permanently shadowed lunar craters is critical to understanding local processes such as surface charging, electrostatic dust transport, volatile sequestration, and space weathering. In order to investigate the nature of this plasma environment, the first two-dimensional kinetic simulations of solar wind expansion into a lunar crater with a self-consistent plasmasurface interaction have been undertaken. The present results reveal how the plasma expansion into a crater couples with the electrically-charged lunar surface to produce a quasi-steady wake structure. In particular, there is a negative feedback between surface charging and ambipolar wake potential that allows an equilibrium to be achieved, with secondary electron emission strongly moderating the process. A range of secondary electron yields is explored, and two distinct limits are highlighted in which either surface charging or ambipolar expansion is responsible for determining the overall wake structure. Citation: Zimmerman, M. I.,