T lymphocytes are exposed to hypoxia during their development and also when they migrate to hypoxic pathological sites such as tumors and wounds. Although hypoxia can affect T cell development and function, the mechanisms by which immune cells sense and respond to changes in O2-availability are poorly understood. K+ channels encoded by the Kv1.3 subtype of the voltage-dependent Kv1 gene family are highly expressed in lymphocytes and are involved in the control of membrane potential and cell function. In this study, we investigate the sensitivity of Kv1.3 channels to hypoxia in freshly isolated human T lymphocytes and leukemic Jurkat T cells. Acute exposure to hypoxia (20 mmHg, 2 min) inhibits Kv1.3 currents in both cell types by 20%. Prolonged exposure to hypoxia (1% O2 for 24 h) selectively decreases Kv1.3 protein levels in Jurkat T cells by 47%, but not Kvβ2 and SK2 Ca-activated K+ channel subunit levels. The decrease in Kv1.3 protein levels occurs with no change in Kv1.3 mRNA expression and is associated with a significant decrease in K+ current density. A decrease in Kv1.3 polypeptide levels similar to that obtained during hypoxia is produced by Kv1.3 channel blockage. Our results indicate that hypoxia produces acute and long-term inhibition of Kv1.3 channels in T lymphocytes. This effect could account for the inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation during hypoxia. Indeed, we herein present evidence showing that hypoxia selectively inhibits TCR-mediated proliferation and that this inhibition is associated with a decrease in Kv1.3 proteins.

The segregation of axon and dendrite projections into distinct synaptic layers is a fundamental principle of nervous system organization and the structural basis for information processing in the brain. Layer-specific recognition molecules that allow projecting neurons to stabilize transient contacts and initiate synaptogenesis have been identified. However, most of the neuronal cell-surface molecules critical for layer organization are expressed broadly in the developing nervous system, raising the question of how these so-called permissive adhesion molecules support synaptic specificity. Here we show that the temporal expression dynamics of the zinc-finger protein sequoia is the major determinant of Drosophila photoreceptor connectivity into distinct synaptic layers. Neighbouring R8 and R7 photoreceptors show consecutive peaks of elevated sequoia expression, which correspond to their sequential target-layer innervation. Loss of sequoia in R7 leads to a projection switch into the R8 recipient layer, whereas a prolonged expression in R8 induces a redirection of their axons into the R7 layer. The sequoia-induced axon targeting is mediated through the ubiquitously expressed Cadherin-N cell adhesion molecule. Our data support a model in which recognition specificity during synaptic layer formation is generated through a temporally restricted axonal competence to respond to broadly expressed adhesion molecules. Because developing neurons innervating the same target area often project in a distinct, birth-order-dependent sequence, temporal identity seems to contain crucial information in generating not only cell type diversity during neuronal division but also connection diversity of projecting neurons.

SUMMARY Axonal branching contributes substantially to neuronal circuit complexity. Studies in Drosophila have shown that loss of Dscam1 receptor diversity can fully block axon branching in mechanosensory neurons. Here we report that cell-autonomous loss of the Receptor-Tyrosine-Phosphatase 69D (RPTP69D) and loss of midline-localized Slit inhibit formation of specific axon collaterals through modulation of Dscam1 activity. Genetic and biochemical data support a model in which direct binding of Slit to Dscam1 enhances the interaction of Dscam1 with RPTP69D, stimulating Dscam1 dephosphorylation. Single growth cone imaging reveals that Slit/RPTP69D are not required for general branch initiation, but instead promote the extension of specific axon collaterals. Hence, while regulation of intrinsic Dscam1-Dscam1 isoform interactions is essential for formation of all mechanosensory-axon branches, the local ligand-induced alterations of Dscam1 phosphorylation in distinct growth cone compartments enable the spatial specificity of axon collateral formation.

T lymphocytes are exposed to hypoxia during their development and when they migrate to hypoxic pathological sites. Although it has been shown that hypoxia inhibits Kv1.3 channels and proliferation in human T cells, the mechanisms by which hypoxia regulates T cell activation are not fully understood. Herein we test the hypothesis that hypoxic inhibition of Kv1.3 channels induces membrane depolarization, thus modulating the increase in cytoplasmic Ca 2+ that occurs during activation. Hypoxia causes membrane depolarization in human CD3 + T cells, as measured by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) with the voltage-sensitive dye DiBAC 4 (3). Similar depolarization is produced by the selective Kv1.3 channel blockers ShK-Dap 22 and margatoxin. Furthermore, pre-exposure to such blockers prevents any further depolarization by hypoxia. Since membrane depolarization is unfavourable to the influx of Ca 2+ through the CRAC channels (necessary to drive many events in T cell activation such as cytokine production and proliferation), the effect of hypoxia on T cell receptor-mediated increase in cytoplasmic Ca 2+was determined using fura-2. Hypoxia depresses the increase in Ca 2+ induced by anti-CD3/CD28 antibodies in ∼50% of lymphocytes. In the remaining cells, hypoxia either did not elicit any change or produced a small increase in cytoplasmic Ca 2+ . Similar effects were observed in resting and pre-activated CD3 + cells and were mimicked by ShK-Dap 22 . These effects appear to be mediated solely by Kv1.3 channels, as we find no influence of hypoxia on IKCa1 and CRAC channels. Our findings indicate that hypoxia modulates Ca 2+ homeostasis in T cells via Kv1.3 channel inhibition and membrane depolarization.