BackgroundParkinson’s disease (PD) affects an estimated 7 to 10 million people worldwide, and only symptomatic treatments are presently available to relieve the consequences of brain dopaminergic neurons loss. Neuronal degeneration in PD is the consequence of neuroinflammation in turn influenced by peripheral adaptive immunity, with CD4+ T lymphocytes playing a key role. CD4+ T cells may however acquire proinflammatory phenotypes, such as T helper (Th) 1 and Th17, as well as anti-inflammatory phenotypes, such as Th2 and the T regulatory (Treg) one, and to what extent the different CD4+ T cell subsets are imbalanced and their functions dysregulated in PD remains largely an unresolved issue.MethodsWe performed two cross-sectional studies in antiparkinson drug-treated and drug-naïve PD patients, and in age- and sex-matched healthy subjects. In the first one, we examined circulating Th1, Th2, Th17, and in the second one circulating Treg. Number and frequency of CD4+ T cell subsets in peripheral blood were assessed by flow cytometry and their functions were studied in ex vivo assays. In both studies, complete clinical assessment, blood count and lineage-specific transcription factors mRNA levels in CD4+ T cells were independently assessed and thereafter compared for their consistency.ResultsPD patients have reduced circulating CD4+ T lymphocytes, due to reduced Th2, Th17, and Treg. Naïve CD4+ T cells from peripheral blood of PD patients preferentially differentiate towards the Th1 lineage. Production of interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α by CD4+ T cells from PD patients is increased and maintained in the presence of homologous Treg. This Th1-biased immune signature occurs in both drug-naïve patients and in patients on dopaminergic drugs, suggesting that current antiparkinson drugs do not affect peripheral adaptive immunity.ConclusionsThe complex phenotypic and functional profile of CD4+ T cell subsets in PD patients strengthen the evidence that peripheral adaptive immunity is involved in PD, and represents a target for the preclinical and clinical assessment of novel immunomodulating therapeutics.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-018-1248-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta, α-synuclein (α-syn)-rich intraneuronal inclusions (Lewy bodies), and microglial activation. Emerging evidence suggests that CD4+ T lymphocytes contribute to neuroinflammation in PD. Since the mainstay of PD treatment is dopaminergic substitution therapy and dopamine is an established transmitter connecting nervous and immune systems, we examined CD4+ T naive and memory lymphocytes in PD patients and in healthy subjects (HS), with specific regard to dopaminergic receptor (DR) expression. In addition, the in vitro effects of α-syn were assessed on CD4+ T naive and memory cells. Results showed extensive association between DR expression in T lymphocytes and motor dysfunction, as assessed by UPDRS Part III score. In total and CD4+ T naive cells expression of D1-like DR decrease, while in T memory cells D2-like DR increase with increasing score. In vitro, α-syn increased CD4+ T memory cells, possibly to a different extent in PD patients and in HS, and affected DR expression with cell subset-specific patterns. The present results support the involvement of peripheral adaptive immunity in PD, and may contribute to develop novel immunotherapies for PD, as well as to better use of current dopaminergic antiparkinson drugs.

Estrogens are known to act selectively on some components of memory, exerting beneficial effects on cognitive performances. However, there are few data on the long-term effect of the lack of estrogen in postmenopausal women. Therefore, we investigated attentive and verbal memory performances in physiological and surgical menopause, drawing attention to the impact of age at menopause, and we compared a well-known aging and estrogen-dependent index, the entity of bone mass loss to memory functioning. No significant differences were found in the mean scores of attentive and psychomotor performances between physiological and surgical menopause, whereas a lower number of recalled words (recency effect = PS2) was found in surgical menopause (p < 0.001) in comparison to physiological menopause. In addition, both the age at the time of ovariectomy (r = 0.47; p = 0.014) and the years since surgery (r = –0.64; p = 0.000) correlated to short-term verbal memory performance (PS2) with better scores when surgery occurred later in women’s lives. Surgical menopause is able to affect short-term verbal memory more than physiological menopause and seems to represent a critical negative event within the female brain, in particular when it occurs prematurely.

From the analysis of the results, treatment of asymptomatic MH would seem advisable in order to re-set hormonal levels and, particularly in older subjects, to protect the brain against the potential risk of cognitive and affective dysfunctions.

Background and Aims: Since little is known about the role of gender in the course of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), a prospective epidemiological study was conducted to detect gender differences in relation to AD evolution and outcome. Methods: Six hundred AD patients, 214 men and 386 women, first seen between September 2000 and December 2003, were enrolled; the follow-up period lasted until December 2008. Results: The men had greater comorbidity and higher mortality than the women, who instead recorded more disability and longer survival. Survival curves showed that women reach partial loss of autonomy faster than men. Higher Neuropsychiatric Inventory scores at baseline showed a predictive value for loss of autonomy regardless of gender. Pharmacological treatment seems to have a protective role on disability and mortality. Conclusions: Gender influences disease evolution not only directly but also through other factors such as comorbidity.