A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and carotenoid database with information on a-and bcarotene, lutein, lycopene and b-cryptoxanthin was prepared and used to compare the carotenoid intakes in five European countries: UK, Republic of Ireland, Spain, France and The Netherlands. Eighty, age-(25±45 years) and sex-matched volunteers were recruited in each of the five countries. A FFQ and carotenoid database was prepared of the most commonly consumed carotenoid rich foods in the participating countries and the information was used to calculate frequency and intake of carotenoid-rich foods. The median total carotenoid intake based on the sum of the five carotenoids, was significantly higher P , 0´05 in France (16´1 mg/day) and lower in Spain (9´5 mg/day,) than the other countries, where the average intake was approximately 14 mg/day. Comparison of dietary source of carotenoids showed that carrots were the major source of b-carotene in all countries except Spain where spinach was most important. Likewise, carrots were also the main source of a-carotene. Tomato or tomato products, were the major source of lycopene. Lutein was mainly obtained from peas in Republic of Ireland and the UK, however, spinach was found to be the major source in other countries. In all countries, bcryptoxanthin was primarily obtained from citrus fruit. Comparing the data with that from specific European country studies suggests that the FFQ and carotenoid database described in the present paper can be used for comparative dietary intake studies within Europe. The results show that within Europe there are differences in the specific intake of some carotenoids which are related to different foods consumed by people in different countries.Carotenoids: Food frequency questionnaire: Diet

A high intake of fruit and vegetables is believed to be protective against heart disease and cancer. /3-Carotene has been closely examined for evidence of these protective properties but evidence is still conflicting and there are many other carotenoids in plant foods which deserve attention. This paper reports studies on the concentrations of lutein and lycopene in the triacylglycerol-rich lipoprotein (TRL) fraction of plasma in comparison with /?-carotene following a large dose of the respective carotenoids fed with a standard meal after an overnight fast. /3-Carotene (40 mg) was given to twelve volunteers (six men and six women) and six of the same volunteers (three men and three women) also received 31.2 mg lutein or 38 mg lycopene. Plasma was collected at hourly intervals for 8 h and the TRL fraction was separated and subsequently analysed for the respective carotenoids and retinyl palmitate in the case of /?-carotene. Intestinal uptake of the three carotenoids was estimated using the 'area under the curve' method and apparent absoqtion was calculated from these results. The response curves in the TRL fraction for /?-carotene and retinyl palmitate occurred maximally over the fourth to fifth hour postprandially. There was a correlation between the TRL concentrations of /3-carotene and retinyl palmitate (males r 0.62, P < 0,001; females r 0.52, P < 0.001) and there was no significant difference between men and women either in the total amount of /3-carotene appearing in the TRL fraction or in the amount converted to retinol. On estimation, approximately 1.4 mg of the 40 mg /?-carotene dose was absorbed and this was not significantly different from the amount of lycopene (1.0mg) but significantly different (P -= 0.05) from the amount of lutein (0.8 mg) absorbed, after correction for the smaller doses administered. There was approximately a twofold difference between subjects in the uptake of /3-carotene into the TRL fraction, a two-to threefold variation in lycopene and a two-to threefold variation in lutein. Despite these inter-subject differences, in three volunteers between whom there was a threefold difference in /?-carotene in the TRL fraction and a twofold difference in retinol formation, repeat experiments with /?-carotene 4 months later found differences of only 3-6 % in the TRL /3-carotene content and 4-9 % for the TRL retinol formed. In conclusion, large intersubject variation in TRL carotene uptake precluded any differences between sexes but surprising intra-subject consistency was observed in TRL /?-carotene uptake of three subjects.

Background: Epidemiological studies suggest a cardioprotective role for carotenoid-rich foods. Smokers have a high risk of cardiovascular disease and low dietary intake and plasma concentrations of carotenoids. The aim of this study was to determine the carotenoid response of smokers and nonsmokers to increased intake of 300–400 g of vegetables and its effect on LDL oxidation. Methods: After a depletion period of 8 days, 34 healthy females (18 nonsmokers, 16 smokers) were supplemented with β-carotene- and lutein-rich (green) and lycopene-rich (red) vegetable foods, each for 7 days. Results: Baseline concentrations (mean ± SD) of plasma β-carotene (0.203 ± 0.28 μmol/L vs 0.412 ± 0.34 μmol/L; P &lt;0.005) and lutein (0.180 ± 0.10 vs 0.242 ± 0.11 μmol/L; P &lt;0.05) but not lycopene (0.296 ± 0.10 vs 0.319 ± 0.33 μmol/L) were significantly lower in smokers compared with nonsmokers. After supplementation, the change (supplementation minus depletion) in plasma β-carotene (0.152 ± 0.43 vs 0.363 ± 0.29 μmol/L in smokers vs nonsmokers; P = 0.002) and LDL lutein (0.015 ± 0.03 vs 0.029 ± 0.03 μmol/mmol cholesterol; P = 0.01) was significantly lower in smokers than nonsmokers. Green-vegetable supplementation had no effect on the resistance of LDL to oxidation (lag-phase) in either group. After red-vegetable supplementation, plasma and LDL lycopene concentrations were increased in both groups, but only nonsmokers showed a significant increase in the lag-phase (44.9 ± 9.5 min at baseline, 41.4 ± 6.5 min after depletion, and 49.0 ± 8.9 min after supplementation; P &lt;0.01) compared with depletion. Conclusions: In this short-term intervention study, a dietary intake of &gt;40 mg/day of lycopene by a group of nonsmoking individuals significantly reduced the susceptibility of LDL to oxidation, whereas an equivalent increase in lycopene by a group of smokers showed no such effect.

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