Non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) mega-enzyme complexes are modular assembly lines that are involved in the biosynthesis of numerous peptide metabolites independently of the ribosome. The multiple interactions between catalytic domains within the NRPS machinery are further complemented by additional interactions with external enzymes, particularly focused on the final peptide maturation process. An important class of NRPS metabolites that require extensive external modification of the NRPS-bound peptide are the glycopeptide antibiotics (GPAs), which include vancomycin and teicoplanin. These clinically relevant peptide antibiotics undergo cytochrome P450-catalysed oxidative crosslinking of aromatic side chains to achieve their final, active conformation. However, the mechanism underlying the recruitment of the cytochrome P450 oxygenases to the NRPS-bound peptide was previously unknown. Here we show, through in vitro studies, that the X-domain, a conserved domain of unknown function present in the final module of all GPA NRPS machineries, is responsible for the recruitment of oxygenases to the NRPS-bound peptide to perform the essential side-chain crosslinking. X-ray crystallography shows that the X-domain is structurally related to condensation domains, but that its amino acid substitutions render it catalytically inactive. We found that the X-domain recruits cytochrome P450 oxygenases to the NRPS and determined the interface by solving the structure of a P450-X-domain complex. Additionally, we demonstrated that the modification of peptide precursors by oxygenases in vitro--in particular the installation of the second crosslink in GPA biosynthesis--occurs only in the presence of the X-domain. Our results indicate that the presentation of peptidyl carrier protein (PCP)-bound substrates for oxidation in GPA biosynthesis requires the presence of the NRPS X-domain to ensure conversion of the precursor peptide into a mature aglycone, and that the carrier protein domain alone is not always sufficient to generate a competent substrate for external cytochrome P450 oxygenases.

Glycopeptide antibiotics (GPAs) are nonribosomal peptides rich in modifications introduced by external enzymes. These enzymes act on the free peptide aglycone or intermediates bound to the nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) assembly line. In this process the terminal module of the NRPS plays a crucial role as it contains a unique recruitment platform (X-domain) interacting with three to four modifying Cytochrome P450 (P450) enzymes that are responsible for cyclizing bound peptides. However, whether these enzymes share the same binding site on the X-domain and how the order of the cyclization steps is orchestrated has remained elusive. In this study we investigate the first two reactions in teicoplanin aglycone maturation catalyzed by the enzymes OxyBtei and OxyAtei. We demonstrate that both enzymes interact with the X-domain via the identical interaction site with similar affinities, irrespective of the peptide modification stage, while their catalytic activity is restricted to the correctly cross-linked peptide. On the basis of steady state kinetics of the OxyBtei-catalyzed reaction, we propose a model for P450 recruitment and peptide modification that involves continuous association/dissociation of the P450 enzymes with the NRPS, followed by specific recognition of the peptide cyclization state by the P450 (scanning). This leads to an induced conformational change that enhances the affinity of the enzyme/substrate complex and initiates catalysis; product release then occurs, with the product itself becoming the substrate for the second enzyme in the pathway. This model rationalizes our experimental findings for this complex enzyme cascade and provides insights into the orchestration of the sequential peptide tailoring reactions on the terminal NRPS module in GPA biosynthesis.

The biosynthesis of the glycopeptide antibiotics, which include vancomycin and teicoplanin, relies on the interplay between the peptide-producing non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) and Cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s) that catalyze side-chain crosslinking of the peptide. We demonstrate that sequential in vitro P450-catalyzed cyclization of peptide substrates is enabled by the use of an NRPS peptide carrier protein (PCP)-X di-domain as a P450 recruitment platform. This study reveals that whilst the precursor peptide sequence influences the installation of the second crosslink by the P450 OxyAtei , activity is not restricted to the native teicoplanin peptide. Initial peptide cyclization is possible with teicoplanin and vancomycin OxyB homologues, and the latter displays excellent activity with all substrate combinations tested. By using non-natural X-domain substrates, bicyclization of hexapeptides was also shown, which demonstrates the utility of this method for the cyclization of varied peptide substrates in vitro.

Kistamicin is a divergent member of the glycopeptide antibiotics, a structurally complex class of important, clinically relevant antibiotics often used as the last resort against resistant bacteria. The extensively crosslinked structure of these antibiotics that is essential for their activity makes their chemical synthesis highly challenging and limits their production to bacterial fermentation. Kistamicin contains three crosslinks, including an unusual 15-membered A- O -B ring, despite the presence of only two Cytochrome P450 Oxy enzymes thought to catalyse formation of such crosslinks within the biosynthetic gene cluster. In this study, we characterise the kistamicin cyclisation pathway, showing that the two Oxy enzymes are responsible for these crosslinks within kistamicin and that they function through interactions with the X-domain, unique to glycopeptide antibiotic biosynthesis. We also show that the kistamicin OxyC enzyme is a promiscuous biocatalyst, able to install multiple crosslinks into peptides containing phenolic amino acids.

The importance of Cytochrome P450-catalyzed modifications of natural products produced by non-ribosomal peptide synthetase machineries is most apparent during glycopeptide antibiotic biosynthesis: specifically, the formation of essential amino acid side chains crosslinks in the peptide backbone of these clinically relevant antibiotics. These cyclization reactions take place whilst the peptide substrate remains bound to the non-ribosomal peptide synthetase in a process mediated by a conserved domain of previously unknown function-the X-domain. This review addresses recent advances in understanding P450 recruitment to non-ribosomal peptide synthetase-bound substrates and highlights the importance of both carrier proteins and the X-domain in different P450-catalyzed reactions.