This paper describes the discovery and characterization of two novel β-N-acetylhexosaminidases HEX1 and HEX2, capable of catalyzing the synthesis of human milk oligosaccharides (HMO) backbone structures with fair yields using chitin oligomers as β-N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) donor. The enzyme-encoding genes were identified by functional screening of a soil-derived metagenomic library. The β-N-acetylhexosaminidases were expressed in Escherichia coli with an N-terminal His6-tag and were purified by nickel affinity chromatography. The sequence similarities of the enzymes with their respective closest homologues are 59 % for HEX1 and 51 % for HEX2 on the protein level. Both β-N-acetylhexosaminidases are classified into glycosyl hydrolase family 20 (GH 20) are able to hydrolyze para-nitrophenyl-β-N-acetylglucosamine (pNP-GlcNAc) as well as para-nitrophenyl-β-N-acetylgalactosamine (pNP-GalNAc) and exhibit pH optima of 8 and 6 for HEX1 and HEX2, respectively. The enzymes are able to hydrolyze N-acetylchitooligosaccharides with a degree of polymerization of two, three, and four. The major findings were, that HEX1 and HEX2 catalyze trans-glycosylation reactions with lactose as acceptor, giving rise to the human milk oligosaccharide precursor lacto-N-triose II (LNT2) with yields of 2 and 8 % based on the donor substrate. In total, trans-glycosylation reactions were tested with the disaccharide acceptors β-lactose, sucrose, and maltose, as well as with the monosaccharides galactose and glucose resulting in the successful attachment of GlcNAc to the acceptor in all cases.

Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) are used in infant formula to replace the health effects of human milk oligosaccharides, which appear to be dependent upon the structure of the individual oligosaccharides present. However, a comprehensive overview of the structure-specific effects is still limited as a result of the high structural complexity of GOS. In this study, porous graphitic carbon (PGC) was used as the stationary phase during ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (UHPLC–MS). This approach resulted in the recognition of more than 100 different GOS structures in one single run, including reducing and non-reducing GOS isomers. Using nuclear magnetic resonance-validated structures of GOS trisaccharides, we discovered MS fragmentation rules to distinguish reducing isomers with a mono- and disubstituted terminal glucose by UHPLC–PGC–MS. UHPLC–PGC–MS enabled effective recognition of structural features of individual GOS components in complex GOS preparations and during, e.g., biological conversion reactions. Hence, this study lays the groundwork for future research into structure-specific health effects of GOS.

Scope Inulin‐type fructans are commonly applied in infant formula to support development of gut microbiota and immunity. These inulin‐type fructans are considered to be fermented by gut microbiota, but it is unknown how fermentation impacts immune modulating capacity and whether the process of fermentation is dependent on the infant's age. Methods and results The in vitro fermentation of chicory fructo‐oligosaccharides (FOS) and native inulin are investigated using pooled fecal inocula of two‐ and eight‐week‐old infants. Both inocula primarily utilize the trisaccharides in FOS, while they almost completely utilize native inulin with degree of polymerization (DP) 3–8. Fecal microbiota of eight‐week‐old infants degrades longer chains of native inulin up to DP 16. This correlates with a higher abundance of Bifidobacterium and higher production of acetate and lactate after 26 h of fermentation. Fermented FOS and native inulin attenuate pro‐inflammatory cytokines produced by immature dendritic cells (DCs), but profiles and magnitude of attenuation are stronger with native inulin than with FOS. Conclusion The findings demonstrate that fermentation of FOS and native inulin is dependent on the infant's age and fructan structure. Fermentation enhances attenuating effects of pro‐inflammatory responses in DCs, which depend mainly on microbial metabolites formed during fermentation.

Porcine milk oligosaccharides (PMOs) were analyzed in six colostrum and two mature milk samples from Dutch Landrace sows. In total, 35 PMOs were recognized of which 13 were new for the PMO literature: neutral HexNAc-Hex, β4'-galactosyllactose, putative GalNAc(α/β1-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc, lacto-N-fucopentaose-II, lacto-N-tetraose, galactose substituted lacto-N-neohexaose, lacto-N-hexaose and difucosyl-lacto-N-hexaose, and acidic Neu5Ac(α2-6)GlcNAc(β1-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc, sialyllacto-N-tetraose-a and -b, Neu5Ac2-Hex3, and sialyllacto-N-fucopentaose-II. PMOs were analyzed using capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced florescence detection or mass spectrometry and using liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry. Interindividual variation regarding PMO presence and concentration was observed between porcine milks. Within a limited sample set, a 43% decrease of the major PMOs was found during a 1 w lactation period. Interestingly, while some PMOs decreased, some other PMOs increased in concentration. PMOs were also monitored in fecal samples of suckling piglets. In feces of 1-2 d old piglets, few intact PMOs were found, indicating considerable PMO fermentation at early stage of life.

Background: Non-digestible carbohydrates are added to infant formula to mimic the effects of human milk oligosaccharide by acting as prebiotics and stimulating the immune system. Although not yet used in infant formulas, β-glucans are known to have beneficial health effects, and are therefore of potential interest for supplementation. Methods and results: We investigated the in vitro fermentation of native and endo-1,3(4)-β-glucanase-treated oat β-glucan using pooled fecal inocula of 2- and 8-week-old infants. While native oat β-glucan was not utilized, both inocula specifically utilized oat β-glucan oligomers containing β(1→4)-linkages formed upon enzyme treatment. The fermentation rate was highest in the fecal microbiota of 2-week-old infants, and correlated with a high lactate production. Fermentation of media supplemented with native and enzyme-treated oat β-glucans increased the relative abundance of Enterococcus and attenuated pro-inflammatory cytokine production (IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα) in immature dendritic cells. This attenuating effect was more pronounced after enzyme treatment. This attenuation might result from the enhanced ability of fermented oat β-glucan to stimulate Dectin-1 receptors. Conclusion: Our findings demonstrate that endo-1,3(4)-β-glucanase treatment enhances the fermentability of oat β-glucan and attenuates pro-inflammatory responses. Hence, this study shows that especially enzyme-treated oat β-glucans have a high potential for supplementation of infant formula.