Ancient DNA research in the past decade has revealed that European population structure changed dramatically in the prehistoric period (14,000-3,000 years before present, YBP), reflecting the widespread introduction of Neolithic farmer and Bronze Age Steppe ancestries. However, little is known about how population structure changed in the historical period onward (3,000 YBP - present). To address this, we collected whole genomes from 204 individuals from Europe and the Mediterranean, many of which are the first historical period genomes from their region (e.g. Armenia, France). We found that most regions show remarkable inter-individual heterogeneity. Around 8% of historical individuals carry ancestry uncommon in the region where they were sampled, some indicating cross-Mediterranean contacts. Despite this high level of mobility, overall population structure across western Eurasia is relatively stable through the historical period up to the present, mirroring the geographic map. We show that, under standard population genetics models with local panmixia, the observed level of dispersal would lead to a collapse of population structure. Persistent population structure thus suggests a lower effective migration rate than indicated by the observed dispersal. We hypothesize that this phenomenon can be explained by extensive transient dispersal arising from drastically improved transportation networks and the Roman Empire’s mobilization of people for trade, labor, and military. This work highlights the utility of ancient DNA in elucidating finer scale human population dynamics in recent history.

The paper presents selected aspects the goldsmithery of Wielbark culture in Roman period. Based on analyzes of chemical composition of fi nds from the cemetery at Weklice, site 7, Elbląg commune and fi nds from selected cemeteries of Roman period located on the Elbląg Heights, three main groups of raw materials were separated: gold, silver and copper alloys. They were also discussed selected techniques of production of jewelry and costume elements, most commonly used by Wielbark culture goldsmiths: casting, forging, fi ligree, granulation, gilding, soldering. Based on the collected data it was found that the Wielbark culture goldsmith workshop was one of the highest technology levels of ancient goldsmithery. 186Magdalena Natuniewicz-Sekuła INTRODUCTIONIn Polish archaeological literature there is a shortage of writings on the specialized craftsmanship in the period of Roman infl uences which would take into account the rich portable source material from the Wielbark culture and, especially, one of the most popular crafts, namely goldworking. This is understood here as making ornaments and elements of dress out of colored metals, mainly alloys of copper and precious metals (gold and silver) and, to a lesser extent, from iron with gold and silver ornamentation.The predominant number of fi nds made from non-ferrous metals have been discovered primarily in cemeteries, the fact that they had the appearance of being almost mass produced suggests that in the Wielbark culture there existed a highly specialized, organized and probably strictly controlled craft production intended for both the local and transregional markets. These are arguments evidencing the high level of intellectual and economic development of the local Wielbark culture communities.Already in ancient times the goldsmith's craft was associated solely with the use of precious metals and surrounded by a special charm and mystery. The occupation of the goldsmith always held a high place in the hierarchy of artisans. In the ancient world a goldsmith determined the fi neness of the gold and silver -he worked as needed, based on his own practice. However, it was often not so much the technology as dishonesty which led to debased gold content. With time, by the Late Middle Ages, European centres of goldworking imposed strict standards on their artisans, who had to use alloys of determined fi neness which were stamped with town marks. But goldsmithery is only seemingly associated with the use of precious metals (primarily gold) as the basic raw material for making ornaments. In the Wielbark culture, the term should refer to fi nds made from alloys of copper and iron. Ornaments from other metals were made using the same goldsmithing techniques (primarily hammering). They were also ornamented with precious metals using goldsmith techniques -impressed foils, fi ligree and granulation. The Wielbark goldsmith's workshop produced both ornaments that played the double function of elements of dress and jewelry (e.g. brooches, bracelets, globular and pear-shape...

In the Bronze Age flint was still being used throughout Europe. In the early periods of that age flint continued to play an important role in the economy in many areas, as evidenced by the numerous flint mines in use at the time as well as flint tools. In the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages, flint still had an important place in the economies of communities living in East Central Europe. At the same time, analysis of late flint industries suggests that some of those had no utilitarian significance. The presence of flint, especially in inhumation graves from the cemetery at Weklice (used by communities of the Wielbark culture during the Roman Period) potentially adds to the debate about its significance. The cemetery at Weklice is the one of the best-known sites from the Roman Period in Poland. The graves are mostly equipped with local finds of metals: gold, silver, copper alloys, iron and amber as well as Roman imports (glass beads, vessels: glass, copper alloys). The collections comprise over of 4000 finds, however this number may change, as excavations in 2012 and 2013 revealed 22 flint artefacts. The presence of flint materials in a Roman Period cemetery admits several possible interpretations: 1) Those may be remnants of older settlements, with graves being dug into older strata and thus some of the specimens of flint could be in their secondary filling on the site; 2) Those may be remains of flint knapping activity by the Wielbark culture community; 3) Those may have been placed in the graves deliberately by the Wielbark culture community as an instance of an older custom involving the placing of flint in graves.