Construction of living artificial cells from genes and molecules can expand our understanding of life system and establish a new aspect of bioengineering. However, growth and division of cell membrane that are basis of cell proliferation are still difficult to reconstruct because a high-yielding phospholipid synthesis system has not been established. Here, we developed a cell-free phospholipid synthesis system that combines fatty acid synthesis and cell-free gene expression system synthesizing acyltransferases. The synthesized fatty acids were sequentially converted into phosphatidic acids by the cell-free synthesized acyltransferases. Because the system can avoid the accumulation of intermediates inhibiting lipid synthesis, sub-millimolar phospholipids could be synthesized within a single reaction mixture. We also performed phospholipid synthesis inside phospholipid membrane vesicles, which encapsulated all the components, and showed the phospholipids localized onto the mother membrane. Our approach would be a platform for the construction of self-reproducing artificial cells since the membrane can grow sustainably.

Y chromosomes often degenerate via the accumulation of pseudogenes and transposable elements. By contrast, little is known about X-chromosome degeneration. Here we compare the pseudogenization process between genes on the neo-sex chromosomes in Drosophila miranda and their autosomal orthologues in closely related species. The pseudogenization rate on the neo-X is much lower than the rate on the neo-Y, but appears to be higher than the rate on the orthologous autosome in D. pseudoobscura. Genes under less functional constraint and/or genes with male-biased expression tend to become pseudogenes on the neo-X, indicating the accumulation of slightly deleterious mutations and the feminization of the neo-X. We also find a weak trend that the genes with female-benefit/male-detriment effects identified in D. melanogaster are pseudogenized on the neo-X, implying the masculinization of the neo-X. These observations suggest that both X and Y chromosomes can degenerate due to a complex suite of evolutionary forces.

How newly generated microRNA (miRNA) genes are integrated into gene regulatory networks during evolution is fundamental in understanding the molecular and evolutionary bases of robustness and plasticity in gene regulation. A recent model proposed that after the birth of a miRNA, the miRNA is generally integrated into the network by decreasing the number of target genes during evolution. However, this decreasing model remains to be carefully examined by considering in vivo conditions. In this study, we therefore compared the number of target genes among miRNAs with different ages, combining experiments with bioinformatics predictions. First, we focused on three Drosophila miRNAs with different ages. As a result, we found that an older miRNA has a greater number of target genes than a younger miRNA, suggesting the increasing number of targets for each miRNA during evolution (increasing model). To further confirm our results, we also predicted all target genes for all miRNAs in D. melanogaster, considering co-expression of miRNAs and mRNAs in vivo. The results obtained also do not support the decreasing model but are reasonably consistent with the increasing model of miRNA-target pairs. Furthermore, our large-scale analyses of currently available experimental data of miRNA-target pairs also showed a weak but the same trend in humans. These results indicate that the current decreasing model of miRNA-target pairs should be reconsidered and the increasing model may be more appropriate to explain the evolutionary transitions of miRNA-target pairs in many organisms.

The reconstructed in vitro translation system known as the PURE system has been used in a variety of cell‐free experiments such as the expression of native and de novo proteins as well as various display methods to select for functional polypeptides. We developed a refined PURE‐based display method for the preparation of stable messenger RNA (mRNA) and complementary DNA (cDNA)‐peptide conjugates and validated its utility for in vitro selection. Our conjugate formation efficiency exceeded 40%, followed by gel purification to allow minimum carry‐over of components from the translation system to the downstream assay enabling clean and efficient random peptide sequence screening. We chose the commercially available anti‐FLAG M2 antibody as a target molecule for validation. Starting from approximately 1.7 × 1012 random sequences, a round‐by‐round high‐throughput sequencing showed clear enrichment of the FLAG epitope DYKDDD as well as revealing consensus FLAG epitope motif DYK(D/L/N)(L/Y/D/N/F)D. Enrichment of core FLAG motifs lacking one of the four key residues (DYKxxD) indicates that Tyr (Y) and Lys (K) appear as the two key residues essential for binding. Furthermore, the comparison between mRNA display and cDNA display method resulted in overall similar performance with slightly higher enrichment for mRNA display. We also show that gel purification steps in the refined PURE‐based display method improve conjugate formation efficiency and enhance the enrichment rate of FLAG epitope motifs in later rounds of selection especially for mRNA display. Overall, the generalized procedure and consistent performance of two different display methods achieved by the commercially available PURE system will be useful for future studies to explore the sequence and functional space of diverse polypeptides.