Background. There are striking global inequities in our knowledge of the incidence, aetiology, and outcome of psychotic disorders. For example, only around 10% of research on incidence of psychotic disorders originates in low-and middleincome countries. We established INTREPID I to develop, implement, and evaluate, in sites in India (Chengalpet), Nigeria (Ibadan), and Trinidad (Tunapuna-Piarco), methods for identifying and recruiting untreated cases of psychosis, as a basis for investigating incidence and, subsequently, risk factors, phenomenology, and outcome. In this paper, we compare case characteristics and incidence rates across the sites.Method. In each site, to identify untreated cases of psychoses in defined catchment areas, we established case detection systems comprising mental health services, traditional and spiritual healers, and key informants.Results. Rates of all untreated psychoses were 45.9 (per 1 00 000 person-years) in Chengalpet, 31.2 in Ibadan, and 36.9 in Tunapuna-Piarco. Duration of psychosis prior to detection was substantially longer in Chengalpet (median 232 weeks) than in Ibadan (median 13 weeks) and Tunapuna-Piarco (median 38 weeks). When analyses were restricted to cases with a short duration (i.e. onset within preceding 2 years) only, rates were 15.5 in Chengalpet, 29.1 in Ibadan, and 26.5 in Tunapuna-Piarco. Further, there was evidence of age and sex differences across sites, with an older average age of onset in Chengalpet and higher rates among women in Ibadan.Conclusion. Our findings suggest there may be differences in rates of psychoses and in the clinical and demographic profiles of cases across economically and socially distinct settings.

PurposeOur understanding of psychotic disorders is largely based on studies conducted in North America, Europe and Australasia. Few methodologically robust and comparable studies have been carried out in other settings. INTREPID is a programme of research on psychoses in India, Nigeria, and Trinidad. As a platform for INTREPID, we sought to establish comprehensive systems for detecting representative samples of cases of psychosis by mapping and seeking to engage all professional and folk (traditional) providers and potential key informants in defined catchment areas.MethodWe used a combination of official sources, local knowledge of principal investigators, and snowballing techniques.ResultsThe structure of the mental health systems in each catchment area was similar, but the content (i.e., type, extent, and nature) differed. Tunapuna–Piarco (Trinidad), for example, has the most comprehensive and accessible professional services. By contrast, Ibadan (Nigeria) has the most extensive folk (traditional) sector. We identified and engaged in our detection system—(a) all professional mental health services in each site (in- and outpatient services—Chengalpet, 6; Ibadan, 3; Trinidad, 5); (b) a wide range of folk providers (Chengalpet, 3 major healing sites; Ibadan, 19 healers; Trinidad: 12 healers); and c) a number of key informants, depending on need (Chengalpet, 361; Ibadan, 54; Trinidad, 1).ConclusionsMarked differences in mental health systems in each catchment area illustrate the necessity of developing tailored systems for the detection of representative samples of cases with untreated and first-episode psychosis as a basis for robust, comparative epidemiological studies.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00127-015-1013-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

BackgroundIn order to facilitate case identification of incident (untreated and recent onset) cases of psychosis and controls in three sites in India, Nigeria and Trinidad, we sought to understand how psychoses (or madness) were conceptualized locally. The evidence we gathered also contributes to a long history of research on concepts of madness in diverse settings.MethodsWe conducted focus group discussions and individual interviews to collect information about how informants in each site make sense of and respond to madness. A coding framework was developed and analyses of transcripts from the FGDs and interviews were conducted.ResultsAnalyses suggest the following: a) disturbed behaviors are the primary sign of madness; b) madness is attributed to a wide range of causes; and, c) responses to madness are dictated by cultural and pragmatic factors. These findings are congruent with similar research that has been conducted over the past 50 years.ConclusionsThe INTREPID research suggests that concepts about madness share similar features across diverse settings: a) terms for madness are often derived from a common understanding that involves disruptions in mental processes and capacities; b) madness is recognized mostly by disruptive behaviours or marked declines in functioning; c) causal attributions are varied; and, d) help-seeking is a complex process.

BackgroundThere is evidence of an association between life events and psychosis in Europe, North America and Australasia, but few studies have examined this association in the rest of the world. AimsTo test the association between exposure to life events and psychosis in catchment areas in India, Nigeria, and Trinidad and Tobago. MethodWe conducted a population-based, matched case-control study of 194 participants in India, Nigeria, and Trinidad and Tobago. Cases were recruited through comprehensive population-based, case-finding strategies. The Harvard Trauma Questionnaire was used to measure life events. The Screening Schedule for Psychosis was used to screen for psychotic symptoms. The association between psychosis and having experienced life events (experienced or witnessed) was estimated by conditional logistic regression. ResultsThere was no overall evidence of an association between psychosis and having experienced or witnessed life events (adjusted odds ratio 1.19, 95% CI 0.62-2.28). We found evidence of effect modification by site (P = 0.002), with stronger evidence of an association in India (adjusted odds ratio 1.56, 95% CI 1.03-2.34), inconclusive evidence in Nigeria (adjusted odds ratio 1.17, 95% CI 0.95-1.45) and evidence of an inverse association in Trinidad and Tobago (adjusted odds ratio 0.66, 95% CI 0.44-0.97). ConclusionsThis study found no overall evidence of an association between witnessing or experiencing life events and psychotic disorder across three culturally and economically diverse countries. There was preliminary evidence that the association varies between settings.