Introduction Social, structural and systems barriers inhibit uptake of HIV testing. HIV self‐testing ( HIVST ) has shown promising uptake by otherwise underserved priority groups including men, young people and first‐time testers. Here, we use characteristics of HIVST kit recipients to investigate delivery to these priority groups during HIVST scale‐up in three African countries. Methods Kit distributors collected individual‐level age, sex and testing history from all clients. These data were aggregated and analysed by country (Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe) for five distribution models: local community‐based distributor ( CBD : door‐to‐door, street and local venues), workplace distribution ( WD ), integration into HIV testing services ( IHTS ), or public health facilities ( IPHF ) and during demand creation for voluntary male medical circumcision ( VMMC ). Used kits were collected and re‐read from CBD and IHTS recipients. Results Between May 2015 and July 2017, 628,705 HIVST kits were distributed in Malawi (172,830), Zambia (190,787) and Zimbabwe (265,091). Community‐based models, the first to be established, accounted for 519,658 (82.7%) of kits distributed, with 275,419 (53.0%) used kits returned. Subsequent model diversification delivered 54,453 (8.7%) test‐kits through IHTS , 23,561 (3.7%) through VMMC , 21,183 (3.4%) through IPHF and 9850 (1.7%) through WD . Men took 294,508 (48.2%) kits, and 263,073 (43.1%) went to young people (16 to 24 years). A higher proportion of male self‐testers (65,577; 22.3%) were first‐time testers than women (54,096; 17.1%) with this apparent in Zimbabwe (16.2% vs. 11.4%), Zambia (25.4% vs. 17.7%) and Malawi (27.9% vs. 25.9%). The highest proportions of first‐time testers were in young (16 to 24 years) and older (>50 years) men (country‐ranges: 18.7% to 35.9% and 13.8% to 26.8% respectively). Most IHTS clients opted for HIVST in preference to standard HTS in each of 12 delivery sites, with those selecting HIVST having lower HIV prevalence, potentially due to self‐selection. Conclusions HIVST delivered at scale using several different models reached a high proportion of men, young people and first‐time testers in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, some of whom may not have tested otherwise. As men and young people have limited uptake under s...

IntroductionReaching men aged 20–35 years, the group at greatest risk of HIV, with voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) remains a challenge. We assessed the impact of two VMMC demand creation approaches targeting this age group in a randomised controlled trial (RCT).MethodsWe conducted a 2×2 factorial RCT comparing arms with and without two interventions: (1) standard demand creation augmented by human-centred design (HCD)-informed approach; (2) standard demand creation plus offer of HIV self-testing (HIVST). Interpersonal communication (IPC) agents were the unit of randomisation. We observed implementation of demand creation over 6 months (1 May to 31 October 2018), with number of men circumcised assessed over 7 months. The primary outcome was the number of men circumcised per IPC agent using the as-treated population of actual number of months each IPC agent worked. We conducted a mixed-methods process evaluation within the RCT.ResultsWe randomised 140 IPC agents, 35 in each arm. 132/140 (94.3%) attended study training and 105/132 (79.5%) reached at least one client during the trial period and were included in final analysis. There was no evidence that the HCD-informed intervention increased VMMC uptake versus no HCD-informed intervention (incident rate ratio (IRR) 0.87, 95% CI 0.38 to 2.02; p=0.75). Nor did offering men a HIVST kit at time of VMMC mobilisation (IRR 0.65, 95% CI 0.28 to 1.50; p=0.31). Among IPC agents that reported reaching at least one man with demand creation, both the HCD-informed intervention and HIVST were deemed useful. There were some challenges with trial implementation; <50% of IPC agents converted any men to VMMC, which undermined our ability to show an effect of demand creation and may reflect acceptability and feasibility of the interventions.ConclusionThis RCT did not show evidence of an effect of HCD-informed demand intervention or HIVST on VMMC uptake. Findings will inform future design and implementation of demand creation evaluations.Trial registration numberPACTR201804003064160.

BackgroundA paradigm shift in global health policy on user fees has been evident in the last decade with a growing consensus that user fees undermine equitable access to essential health care in many low and middle income countries. Changes to fees have major implications for human resources for health (HRH), though the linkages are rarely explicitly examined. This study aimed to examine the inter-linkages in Zimbabwe in order to generate lessons for HRH and fee policies, with particular respect to reproductive, maternal and newborn health (RMNH).MethodsThe study used secondary data and small-scale qualitative fieldwork (key informant interview and focus group discussions) at national level and in one district in 2011.ResultsThe past decades have seen a shift in the burden of payments onto households. Implementation of the complex rules on exemptions is patchy and confused. RMNH services are seen as hard for families to afford, even in the absence of complications. Human resources are constrained in managing current demand and any growth in demand by high external and internal migration, and low remuneration, amongst other factors. We find that nurses and midwives are evenly distributed across the country (at least in the public sector), though doctors are not. This means that for four provinces, there are not enough doctors to provide more complex care, and only three provinces could provide cover in the event of all deliveries taking place in facilities.ConclusionsThis analysis suggests that there is a strong case for reducing the financial burden on clients of RMNH services and also a pressing need to improve the terms and conditions of key health staff. Numbers need to grow, and distribution is also a challenge, suggesting the need for differentiated policies in relation to rural areas, especially for doctors and specialists. The management of user fees should also be reviewed, particularly for non-Ministry facilities, which do not retain their revenues, and receive limited investment in return from the municipalities and district councils. Overall public investment in health needs to grow.

BackgroundMale circumcision devices have the potential to accelerate adolescent voluntary medical male circumcision roll-out. Here, we present findings on safety, acceptability and satisfaction from active surveillance of PrePex implementation among 618 adolescent males (13–17 years) circumcised in Zimbabwe.MethodsThe first 618 adolescents consecutively circumcised from October 2015 to October 2016 using PrePex during routine service delivery were actively followed up. Outcome measures included PrePex uptake, attendance for post-circumcision visits and adverse events (AEs). A survey was conducted amongst 500 consecutive active surveillance clients to assess acceptability and satisfaction with PrePex.ResultsA total of 1,811 adolescent males were circumcised across the three PrePex active surveillance sites. Of these, 870 (48%) opted for PrePex but only 618/870 (71%) were eligible. Among the 618, two (0.3%) self-removals requiring surgery (severe AEs), were observed. Four (0.6%) removals by providers (moderate AEs) did not require surgery. Another 6 (1%) mild AEs were due to: bleeding (n = 2), swelling (n = 2), and infection (n = 2). All AEs resolved without sequelae. Adherence to follow-up appointments was high (97.7% attended 7 day visit). A high proportion (71.6%) of survey respondents said they heard about PrePex from a mobilizer; 49.8% said they chose PrePex because they wanted to avoid the pain associated with the surgical procedure/surgery on their penis. Acceptability and satisfaction with PrePex was high; 95.4% indicated willingness to recommend PrePex to peers. A majority (92%) reported experiencing pain when PrePex was being removed.ConclusionsActive surveillance of the first 618 adolescent males circumcised using PrePex suggests that the device is both safe and acceptable when used in routine service delivery among 13–17 year-olds. There is need to intensify specific demand generation activities for PrePex male circumcision among this group of males.

Background Zimbabwe faces an uncertain future for condom funding and potential condom insecurity as international donors prioritize creating more self-sustaining markets and the government identifies how to best ensure access and uptake. We tested the impact of an intensive intervention on demand and supply after a price increase to the social marketed condom, Protector Plus. The study occurred during a deteriorating economy and pressure to reach sustainability quickly. We highlight where strategic donor investments can impact condom programming and markets. Methods We randomized ten purposively selected districts in Zimbabwe and assigned them to two study groups to test the impact of an intensive social marketing intervention. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first experimental study conducted within a larger market strengthening context. We tracked sales of Protector Plus and distribution of the public sector condom monthly. We conducted baseline and follow-up surveys among consumers and traders, and used the difference-in-difference method to test the intervention’s impact on condom preferences and brand equity. Results Protector Plus sales rebounded to previous levels after the price increase. We detected no significant difference in sales between the experimental and control districts. Among traders, there were no significant differences in brand preference for Protector Plus attributed to the intervention. Among consumers, there was a significant increase in emotional attachment and beliefs about condom efficacy in the experimental districts. Discussion Study findings demonstrate where international donor and government investments can impact condom programming and condom markets. Broader findings from the intervention highlight where investments can improve condom coverage, cost recovery, and collaboration between the public, social marketing, and commercial sectors. Strategic investments for strengthening condom markets include: consumer research to segment markets, willingness to pay studies to set price points, distribution system improvements to increase efficiency, intensive demand generation to increase demand and use, market facilitation across sectors, and market intelligence to inform decision making. When a disciplined social marketing approach is used, the market benefits: subsidies can be better targeted, branded products can appeal to the right audiences, and room can be made for the commercial sector to enter the market.