Objectives: In children, coronavirus disease 2019 is usually mild but can develop severe hypoxemic failure or a severe multisystem inflammatory syndrome, the latter considered to be a postinfectious syndrome, with cardiac involvement alone or together with a toxic shock like-presentation. Given the novelty of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the causative agent of the recent coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, little is known about the pathophysiology and phenotypic expressions of this new infectious disease nor the optimal treatment approach. Study Selection: From inception to July 10, 2020, repeated PubMed and open Web searches have been done by the scientific section collaborative group members of the European Society of Pediatric and Neonatal Intensive Care. Data Extraction: There is little in the way of clinical research in children affected by coronavirus disease 2019, apart from descriptive data and epidemiology. Data Synthesis: Even though basic treatment and organ support considerations seem not to differ much from other critical illness, such as pediatric septic shock and multiple organ failure, seen in PICUs, some specific issues must be considered when caring for children with severe coronavirus disease 2019 disease. Conclusions: In this clinical guidance article, we review the current clinical knowledge of coronavirus disease 2019 disease in critically ill children and discuss some specific treatment concepts based mainly on expert opinion based on limited experience and the lack of any completed controlled trials in children at this time.

Chronic HCV infection is a major health problem in Punjab; it appears to be more common than HBV infection. Exercising safe health care related procedures should be emphasized in our country as main modes of transmission of infection identified were related to these.

Children seem to be less severely affected by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) as compared to adults. Little is known about the prevalence and pathogenesis of acute kidney injury (AKI) in children affected by SARS-CoV-2. Dehydration seems to be the most common trigger factor, and meticulous attention to fluid status is imperative. The principles of initiation, prescription, and complications related to renal replacement therapy are the same for coronavirus disease (COVID) patients as for non-COVID patients. Continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) remains the most common modality of treatment. When to initiate and what modality to use are dependent on the available resources. Though children are less often and less severely affected, diversion of all hospital resources to manage the adult surge might lead to limited CRRT resources. We describe how these shortages might be mitigated. Where machines are limited, one CRRT machine can be used for multiple patients, providing a limited number of hours of CRRT per day. In this case, increased exchange rates can be used to compensate for the decreased duration of CRRT. If consumables are limited, lower doses of CRRT (15–20 mL/kg/h) for 24 h may be feasible. Hypercoagulability leading to frequent filter clotting is an important issue in these children. Increased doses of unfractionated heparin, combination of heparin and regional citrate anticoagulation, or combination of prostacyclin and heparin might be used. If infusion pumps to deliver anticoagulants are limited, the administration of low-molecular-weight heparin might be considered. Alternatively in children, acute peritoneal dialysis can successfully control both fluid and metabolic disturbances. Intermittent hemodialysis can also be used in patients who are hemodynamically stable. The keys to successfully managing pediatric AKI in a pandemic are flexible use of resources, good understanding of dialysis techniques, and teamwork.

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Azathioprine is well tolerated and has therapeutic benefits lasting as long as 4 years. Adverse effects such as pancreatitis, hepatitis, cytopenias and gastrointestinal symptoms do occur but are controlled by drug withdrawal only.