Ecosystem level indicators are emerging as important pillars of the post-2020 global biodiversity framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity; at the same time, the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems (RLEs) is experiencing rapid global uptake. We applied a systematic RLE assessment to 456 terrestrial ecosystems in South Africa between 2017 and 2021. What sets South Africa apart in this endeavour is that an independently formulated ecosystem threat status indicator was developed between 2004 and 2008 and the list of threatened ecosystems (effectively a proto RLE) was integrated into the national environmental regulatory framework in 2011. Through this, Critically Endangered and Endangered types were afforded a form of statutory protection through increased regulation of land-use change activities. We describe the transition to the IUCN RLE framework and focus on both the technical steps of incorporating the best available data into a credible assessment, and the unique social and legal processes to ensure that the biodiversity conservation sector in South Africa understood and supported the proposed replacement of the existing list of threatened ecosystems (2011) with the RLE (2021). We discuss the policy development steps required in South Africa, and the pros and cons of maintaining a legislative link for RLE implementation.

Restore and maintain coastal ecological infrastructure as part of a national coastal restoration plan to strengthen climate resilience and sustain ecosystem services and key benefits to South Africans. Diversify and create more jobsDiversify and create more job opportunities for coastal communities from tourism and coastal restoration and monitoring programmes to supplement their livelihoods. Ensure sufficient quantity and improve the quality of freshwater flows to the coastEnsure sufficient freshwater flows through estuaries to the coastal and offshore marine environments, and improve coastal water quality by addressing pollution, particularly in priority areas, all to maintain healthy biodiversity assets and associated benefits. Re-establish flows of sand to beaches and dunesRe-establish natural sand supplies to the coast, where possible, to replenish sand-starved beaches and dunes and thereby maintain benefits of coastal protection, sustain South Africa's most important biodiversity asset for tourism, and safeguard our unique beach biodiversity. Improve management to rebuild depleted stocks of coastal resourcesImprove management of current activities that use coastal natural resources to support rebuilding depleted stocks for long-term sustainability. Reduce mining impactsReduce the impacts of mining by stopping illegal mining, avoiding biodiversity priority areas, and improving rehabilitation. Locate ports and harbours carefullyLocate new ports and harbours appropriately through careful cross-sectoral planning to avoid widespread degradation of biodiversity priority areas and related benefits from the cumulative impacts associated with better ocean access. Use the new Coastal and Marine Spatial Biodiversity Plan to 'close the gap'Use the new Coastal and Marine Spatial Biodiversity Plan (CBA Map and associated land-and seause guidelines) to align governance, planning and decision-making across realms and across organs of state to achieve effective, science-based and proactive integrated coastal zone management. Effectively communicate the benefits of coastal biodiversityEffectively communicate the value of South Africa's coastal biodiversity through improved coordinated messaging that articulates benefits to build support for coastal conservation and mobilise people to sustainably use coastal biodiversity. Address knowledge gapsCatalyse research to address critical knowledge gaps that limit the assessment of coastal biodiversity and decision making for sustainable use and safeguarding the benefits of coastal biodiversity assets, especially in the face of global change.See Harris et al. (2019b) for details.Table S1. Legend to the map of coastal ecosystem types (Fig. 1).

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