It is well known that when wind turbines are deployed in large arrays, their efficiency decreases due to complex interactions among themselves and with the atmospheric boundary layer ͑ABL͒. For wind farms whose length exceeds the height of the ABL by over an order of magnitude, a "fully developed" flow regime can be established. In this asymptotic regime, changes in the streamwise direction can be neglected and the relevant exchanges occur in the vertical direction. Such a fully developed wind-turbine array boundary layer ͑WTABL͒ has not been studied systematically before. A suite of large eddy simulations ͑LES͒, in which wind turbines are modeled using the classical "drag disk" concept, is performed for various wind-turbine arrangements, turbine loading factors, and surface roughness values. The results are used to quantify the vertical transport of momentum and kinetic energy across the boundary layer. It is shown that the vertical fluxes of kinetic energy are of the same order of magnitude as the power extracted by the forces modeling the wind turbines. In the fully developed WTABL, the kinetic energy extracted by the wind turbines is transported into the wind-turbine region by vertical fluxes associated with turbulence. The results are also used to develop improved models for effective roughness length scales experienced by the ABL. The effective roughness scale is often used to model wind-turbine arrays in simulations of atmospheric dynamics at larger ͑regional and global͒ scales. The results from the LES are compared to several existing models for effective roughness lengths. Based on the observed trends, a modified model is proposed, showing improvement in the predicted effective roughness length.

Mechanical stability of ordered droplet packings in microfluidic channels Appl. Phys. Lett. 99, 244104 (2011) Numerical investigation and evaluation of optimum hydrodynamic performance of a horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbine J. Wind harvesting is fast becoming an important alternative source of energy. As wind farms become larger, they begin to attain scales at which two-way interactions with the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) must be taken into account. Several studies have shown that there is a quantifiable effect of wind farms on the local meteorology, mainly through changes in the land-atmosphere fluxes of heat and moisture. In particular, the observed trends suggest that wind farms increase fluxes at the surface and this could be due to increased turbulence in the wakes. Conversely, simulations and laboratory experiments show that underneath wind farms, the friction velocity is decreased due to extraction of momentum by the wind turbines, a factor that could decrease scalar fluxes at the surface. In order to study this issue in more detail, a suite of large eddy simulations of an infinite (fully developed) wind turbine array boundary layer, including scalar transport from the ground surface without stratification, is performed. Results show an overall increase in the scalar fluxes of about 10%-15% when wind turbines are present in the ABL, and that the increase does not strongly depend upon wind farm loading as described by the turbines' thrust coefficient and the wind turbines spacings. A single-column analysis including scalar transport shows that the presence of wind farms can be expected to increase slightly the scalar transport from the bottom surface and that this slight increase is due to a delicate balance between two strong opposing trends.

Turbulence data from the CASES‐99 field experiment, over comparatively horizontally homogeneous and flat terrain, are separated based on the anisotropy of the Reynolds stress tensor (into isotropic, two‐component axisymmetric and one‐component turbulence) and flux‐variance similarity scaling relations are tested. Results illustrate that different states of anisotropy correspond to different similarity relations, especially under unstable stratification. Experimental data with close to isotropic turbulence match similarity relationships well. On the other hand, very anisotropic turbulence deviates significantly from the traditional scaling relations. We examine in detail the characteristics of these states of anisotropy, identify conditions in which they occur and connect them with different governing parameters. The governing parameters of turbulence anisotropy are shown to be different for stable and unstable stratification, but are able to delineate clearly the conditions in which each of the anisotropy states occurs.

Solar energy has the potential to offset a significant fraction of non-renewable electricity demands globally, yet it may occupy extensive areas when deployed at this level. There is growing concern that large renewable energy installations will displace other land uses. Where should future solar power installations be placed to achieve the highest energy production and best use the limited land resource? The premise of this work is that the solar panel efficiency is a function of the location’s microclimate within which it is immersed. Current studies largely ignore many of the environmental factors that influence Photovoltaic (PV) panel function. A model for solar panel efficiency that incorporates the influence of the panel’s microclimate was derived from first principles and validated with field observations. Results confirm that the PV panel efficiency is influenced by the insolation, air temperature, wind speed and relative humidity. The model was applied globally using bias-corrected reanalysis datasets to map solar panel efficiency and the potential for solar power production given local conditions. Solar power production potential was classified based on local land cover classification, with croplands having the greatest median solar potential of approximately 28 W/m 2 . The potential for dual-use, agrivoltaic systems may alleviate land competition or other spatial constraints for solar power development, creating a significant opportunity for future energy sustainability. Global energy demand would be offset by solar production if even less than 1% of cropland were converted to an agrivoltaic system.

In high-altitude alpine catchments, diurnal streamflow cycles are typically dominated by snowmelt or ice melt. Evapotranspiration-induced diurnal streamflow cycles are less observed in these catchments but might happen simultaneously. During a field campaign in the summer 2012 in an alpine catchment in the Swiss Alps (Val Ferret catchment, 20.4 km 2 , glaciarized area: 2%), we observed a transition in the early season from a snowmelt to an evapotranspiration-induced diurnal streamflow cycle in one of two monitored subbasins. The two different cycles were of comparable amplitudes and the transition happened within a time span of several days. In the second monitored subbasin, we observed an ice meltdominated diurnal cycle during the entire season due to the presence of a small glacier. Comparisons between ice melt and evapotranspiration cycles showed that the two processes were happening at the same times of day but with a different sign and a different shape. The amplitude of the ice melt cycle decreased exponentially during the season and was larger than the amplitude of the evapotranspiration cycle which was relatively constant during the season. Our study suggests that an evapotranspirationdominated diurnal streamflow cycle could damp the ice melt-dominated diurnal streamflow cycle. The two types of diurnal streamflow cycles were separated using a method based on the identification of the active riparian area and measurement of evapotranspiration.