In August 2009 a combined epidemiological and ecological pilot study was conducted to investigate allegations of human rights abuses in the form of exposures to toxic metals experienced by mine workers and Indigenous Mam Mayan near the Marlin Mine in Guatemala. In the human study there were no differences in blood and urine metals when comparing five mine workers with eighteen non-mine workers, and there were no discernible relationships between metals exposures and self-reported health measures in any study group. On the other hand, individuals residing closest to the mine had significantly higher levels of certain metals (urinary mercury, copper, arsenic, zinc) when compared to those living further away. Levels of blood aluminum, manganese, and cobalt were elevated in comparison to established normal ranges in many individuals; however, there was no apparent relationship to proximity to the mine or occupation, and thus are of unclear significance. In the ecological study, several metals (aluminum, manganese, cobalt) were found significantly elevated in the river water and sediment sites directly below the mine when compared to sites elsewhere. When the results of the human and ecological results are combined, they suggest that exposures to certain metals may be elevated in sites near the mine but it is not clear if the current magnitude of these elevations poses a significant threat to health. The authors conclude that more robust studies are needed while parallel efforts to minimize the ecological and human impacts of mining proceed. This is critical particularly as the impact of the exposures found could be greatly magnified by expected increases in mining activity over time, synergistic toxicity between metals, and susceptibility for the young and those with pre-existing disease.

Cryptosporidium is an enteric protozoan pathogen associated with neonatal diarrhoea and mortality in small ruminants. Faecal samples of two hundred small ruminants were examined for Cryptosporidium oocysts using formol-ether concentration and modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining technique. Fifty seven (28.5%) out of the 200 faecal samples examined were positive for Cryptosporidium oocysts. The occurrence was higher in sheep (33.0%) than goats (24.0%), in male (32.8%) than female (26.6%), in those with loose/watery faeces (74.4%) than those with well-formed faeces (17.4%), in those between age 4-6 months (39.2%) than 0-3 months (22.2%) and those within 7 months and above (21.1%), in those that drank borehole water (28.7%) than those that drank well/stream water (20.0%), in those raised under semi-intensive/extensive (29.9%) than those under intensive system (21.1%). There was significant association between the occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and age of small ruminants (OR = 2.368, 95% CI on OR: 1.251 < OR < 4.484). On the other hand, there were no significant associations between the occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and sex, breed, faecal consistencies, source of water and management practices of small ruminants (P > 0.05). The species of Cryptosporidium infecting small ruminants identified in this study were C. parvum (50.9%), C. ryanae (26.3%), C. xiaoi (12.3%), C. bovis (8.8%) and C. andersonii (1.8%). The high prevalence of C. parvum observed in this study is of public health importance because of it zoonotic nature. This study shows that age influence the occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and C. parvum is the predominant species in small ruminants in Potiskum, Yobe State.

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