The genus Listeria comprises food-borne pathogens associated with severe infections and a high mortality rate. Endolysins from bacteriophages infecting Listeria are promising tools for both their detection and control. These proteins feature a modular organization, consisting of an N-terminal enzymatically active domain (EAD), which contributes lytic activity, and a C-terminal cell wall binding domain (CBD), which targets the lysin to its substrate. Sequence comparison among 12 different endolysins revealed high diversity among the enzyme's functional domains and allowed classification of their CBDs into two major groups and five subclasses. This diversity is reflected in various binding properties, as determined by cell wall binding assays using CBDs fused to fluorescent marker proteins. Although some proteins exhibited a broad binding range and recognize Listeria strains representing all serovars, others target specific serovars only. The CBDs also differed with respect to the number and distribution of ligands recognized on the cells, as well as their binding affinities. Surface plasmon resonance analysis revealed equilibrium affinities in the pico-to nanomolar ranges for all proteins except CBD006, which is due to an internal truncation. Rapid multiplexed detection and differentiation of Listeria strains in mixed bacterial cultures was possible by combining CBDs of different binding specificities with fluorescent markers of various colors. In addition, cells of different Listeria strains could be recovered from artificially contaminated milk or cheese by CBD-based magnetic separation by using broadrange CBDP40 and subsequently identified after incubation with two differently colored CBD fusion proteins of higher specificity.Listeria belong to the low GϩC Gram-positive bacteria; are ubiquitously present in nature; and can be isolated from many sources such as soil, water, sewage effluents, and the feces of humans and animals (52). Within the genus Listeria, six species are recognized (Listeria monocytogenes, L. innocua, L. ivanovii, L. seeligeri, L. welshimeri, and L. grayi), in addition to the recently proposed new species L. marthii (12) and L. rocourtiae (24). Five major serovar (sv.) groups exist (1/2, 3, 4, 6, and 7), and at least 16 subserovars can be distinguished. Variations are mainly due to the structure and composition of cell wall-associated carbohydrates, wall teichoic acid (WTA), and lipoteichoic acid (LTA). However, serotyping does not necessarily correlate with the species (7, 8). Listeria monocytogenes is an opportunistic, intracellular pathogen causing an infection termed listeriosis and is exclusively transmitted via contaminated food such as raw meat, milk products, fish products, and vegetables. Listeriosis is a serious infection primarily affecting immunocompromised patients, pregnant women, the elderly, and newborns and is characterized by a high mortality rate up to Ͼ40% (5). Strains belonging to sv. groups 1/2 and 4b have been responsible for the majority of Listeria infections in hu...

Our results corroborate the high potential of PGHs for treatment of S. aureus infections and reveal unique antimicrobial and biochemical properties of the different enzymes, suggesting a high diversity of potential applications despite highly conserved peptidoglycan target sites.

The intracellular pathogen Listeria monocytogenes is distinguished by its ability to invade and replicate within mammalian cells. Remarkably, of the 15 serovars within the genus, strains belonging to serovar 4b cause the majority of listeriosis clinical cases and outbreaks. The Listeria O-antigens are defined by subtle structural differences amongst the peptidoglycan-associated wall-teichoic acids (WTAs), and their specific glycosylation patterns. Here, we outline the genetic determinants required for WTA decoration in serovar 4b L. monocytogenes, and demonstrate the exact nature of the 4b-specific antigen. We show that challenge by bacteriophages selects for surviving clones that feature mutations in genes involved in teichoic acid glycosylation, leading to a loss of galactose from both wall teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid molecules, and a switch from serovar 4b to 4d. Surprisingly, loss of this galactose decoration not only prevents phage adsorption, but leads to a complete loss of surface-associated Internalin B (InlB),the inability to form actin tails, and a virulence attenuation in vivo. We show that InlB specifically recognizes and attaches to galactosylated teichoic acid polymers, and is secreted upon loss of this modification, leading to a drastically reduced cellular invasiveness. Consequently, these phage-insensitive bacteria are unable to interact with cMet and gC1q-R host cell receptors, which normally trigger cellular uptake upon interaction with InlB. Collectively, we provide detailed mechanistic insight into the dual role of a surface antigen crucial for both phage adsorption and cellular invasiveness, demonstrating a trade-off between phage resistance and virulence in this opportunistic pathogen.

Wall teichoic acids (WTAs) are the most abundant glycopolymers found on the cell wall of many Gram-positive bacteria, whose diverse surface structures play key roles in multiple biological processes. Despite recent technological advances in glycan analysis, structural elucidation of WTAs remains challenging due to their complex nature. Here, we employed a combination of ultra-performance liquid chromatography-coupled electrospray ionization tandem-MS/MS and NMR to determine the structural complexity of WTAs from species. We unveiled more than 10 different types of WTA polymers that vary in their linkage and repeating units. Disparity in GlcNAc to ribitol connectivity, as well as variable-acetylation and glycosylation of GlcNAc contribute to the structural diversity of WTAs. Notably, SPR analysis indicated that constitution of WTA determines the recognition by bacteriophage endolysins. Collectively, these findings provide detailed insight into cell wall-associated carbohydrates, and will guide further studies on the structure-function relationship of WTAs.

SummaryThe cell wall binding domains (CBD) of bacteriophage endolysins target the enzymes to their substrate in the bacterial peptidoglycan with extraordinary specificity. Despite strong interest in these enzymes as novel antimicrobials, little is known regarding their interaction with the bacterial wall and their binding ligands. We investigated the interaction of Listeria phage endolysin PlyP35 with carbohydrate residues present in the teichoic acid polymers on the peptidoglycan. Biochemical and genetic analyses revealed that CBD of PlyP35 specifically recognizes the N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) residue at position C4 of the polyribitol-phosphate subunits. Binding of CBDP35 could be prevented by removal of wall teichoic acid (WTA) polymers from cell walls, and inhibited by addition of purified WTAs or acetylated saccharides. We show that Listeria monocytogenes genes lmo2549 and lmo2550 are required for decoration of WTAs with GlcNAc. Inactivation of either gene resulted in a lack of GlcNAc glycosylation, and the mutants failed to bind CBDP35. We also report that the GlcNAc-deficient phenotype of L. monocytogenes strain WSLC 1442 is due to a small deletion in lmo2550, resulting in synthesis of a truncated gene product responsible for the glycosylation defect. Complementation with lmo2550 completely restored display of characteristic serovar 1/2 specific WTA and the wild-type phenotype.