The present study reports the first population genetic analysis of Arapaima gigas, an important but critically over-exploited fish species of the Amazon basin. We sequenced two discontinuous mitochondrial DNA regions of 1204 base-pairs (bp) (NADH1 segment) and 1143 bp (ATPase segment) from 139 individuals of A. gigas representing eight localities spanning the Amazon basin from Iquitos, Peru to Macapá, Brazil. We discovered 34 haplotypes separated by 44 segregating sites. The two most common haplotypes are shared among all populations and isolation-by-distance appears to be the most important population dynamic, although there is no significant association between geographical distance and genetic differentiation. Observed patterns of differentiation appear to be attributable largely to anthropogenic factors associated with over-exploitation. Greatest haplotypic diversity exists upstream of Manaus and in areas away from large centres of population. The female variance and inbreeding effective population sizes are approximately 150 000 individuals and localities in the Amazon basin are connected by gene flow. Naturally low levels of population differentiation and relatively high between-population connectivity is encouraging for the conservation and management of A. gigas. If strategically placed biological reserves were created throughout the Amazon basin to act as sources of emigrants within a source-sink metapopulation model, we believe locally depleted populations can be re-populated and maintained by individuals immigrating from these reserves.

In the present study we report a spatial autocorrelation analysis of molecular data obtained for Arapaima gigas, and the implication of this study for conservation and management. Arapaima is an important, but critically over-exploited giant food fish of the Amazonian várzea. Analysis of 14 variable microsatellite loci and 2,347 bp of mtDNA from 126 individuals sampled in seven localities within the Amazon basin suggests that Arapaima forms a continuous population with extensive genetic exchange among localities. Weak effect of isolation-by-distance is observed in microsatellite data, but not in mtDNA data. Spatial autocorrelation analysis of genetic and geographic data suggests that genetic exchange is significantly restricted at distances greater than 2,500 km. We recommend implementing a source-sink metapopulation management and conservation model by proposing replicate high quality várzea reserves in the upper, central, and lower Amazon basin. This conservation strategy would: 1) preserve all of the current genetic diversity of Arapaima; 2) create a set of reserves to supply immigrants for locally depleted populations; 3) preserve core várzea areas in the Amazon basin on which many other species depend. We stress that conservation strategies should not only preserve current genetic diversity, but also the evolutionary processes which have generated the observed patterns.Keywords: pirarucu, gene flow, reserves, várzea, autocorrelation, microsatellites. Estratégias de conservação para Arapaima gigas (Schinz, 1822) e para o ecossistema Amazônico de várzea ResumoNo presente estudo, é descrita uma análise de autocorrelação espacial de dados moleculares obtidos para Arapaima gigas e a implicação deste estudo para sua conservação e manejo. Arapaima é uma espécie de peixe gigante da várzea Amazônica de grande importância econômica, e criticamente sobre-explorada. A análise de 14 locos microssatélites e de 2.347 pb do DNAmt de 126 indivíduos amostrados em sete localidades na bacia Amazônica sugere que Arapaima forma uma população contínua com grande fluxo genético entre localidades. Um pequeno efeito de isolamento por distância é observado através dos dados de microssatélites, mas não através dos dados de DNAmt. A análise de autocorrelação espacial de dados genéticos e geográficos sugere que o fluxo gênico é significativamente restrito em distâncias maiores que 2.500 km. É recomendada a implementação de um modelo de manejo e conservação de metapopulação no padrão doador-receptor, replicando as reservas de várzea na bacia Amazônica superior, central e inferior. Esta estratégia de conservação iria: 1) preservar toda a atual diversidade genética da Arapaima; 2) criar um conjunto de reservas para fornecer imigrantes para populações locais reduzidas; 3) preservar áreas centrais de várzea na bacia Amazônica das quais diversas outras espécies dependem. Estratégias de conservação não deveriam somente preservar a atual diversidade genética, mas também os processos evolutivos que têm gerado os padrões observados.

Arapaima, pirarucu or paiche ( Arapaima gigas ) is one of the largest freshwater fish in the world, and has a long history of commercial exploitation in the Amazon region. To estimate levels of genetic variability and historical and recent connectivity in Arapaima, we examined variation in eleven microsatellite DNA markers in individuals from 22 localities in Brazil, Colombia, and Peru. The results of analysis of molecular variance, Bayesian clustering and discriminant analysis of principal components showed that Arapaima in our samples represents two major populations, one in the Amazonas and one in the Araguaia-Tocantins River basins. The Amazonas population is further structured by isolation-by-distance with the hydrologically largely unconnected Amapá locality representing the eastern-most extreme of this continuum; gene flow predominates at distances of less than 1500 km with localities separated by over 2000 km dominated by genetic drift and effectively forming different populations. We saw no evidence of multiple species of Arapaima in the Amazonas basin, and analysis of pairwise genetic divergence ( F ST ) with Mantel tests and correlograms indicated that this largest population exhibits a large-scale pattern of isolation-by-distance, with which results from MIGRATE-N agreed. The degree and significance of genetic divergence indicates that most sampled localities represent demographically independent sub-populations, although we did identify several recent migration events between both proximal and more distant localities. The levels of genetic diversity were heterogeneous across sites, including low genetic diversity, effective population sizes, and evidence of genetic bottlenecks in several places. On average the levels of gene diversity and rarefied allelic richness were higher for localities along the Amazonas mainstem than in the tributaries, despite these being the areas of highest fishing pressure, while the lowest values were found in tributary headwaters, where landscape modification is a significant threat. We recommend that managers consider the regional and local threats to these populations and tailor strategies accordingly, strategies which should ensure the ability of young A . gigas to disperse through floodplain corridors to maintain genetic diversity among otherwise sedentary adult sub-populations.

The bioaccumulation of mercury by fish was studied in three natural lakes lining the Tapajós River, Brazilian Amazon. The Hg content variations are also reported between the rainy and the rising water seasons. Position of fish in the food chain and the source of carbon at the base of the food chain were determined using nitrogen and carbon stable isotopes ratios respectively. During the two seasons, the effect of the Hg biomagnification between the non-piscivorous and piscivorous fish of the three lakes is observed. The correlation between the mercury concentrations and the nitrogen isotopic ratios suggests that the fish mercury content variability is connected with the trophic position and size. Aside from classic observations on mercury biomagnification by certain species of fish (i.e. contents increase with size or trophic status), novel results were revealed as well, such as some species decrease of mercury contents with size of fish. Aquatic organisms in the Amazon are adapted to the complexity of trophic webs coupled with changes in environmental variables, depending on the location and/or the season, which results in a wide range of mercurial contamination among the Tapajós ichthyofauna.

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