Diet-induced obesity in C57BL/6 mice triggers common features of human metabolic syndrome (MetS). The purpose is to assess the suitability of a diet-induced obesity model for investigating non-alcoholic fatty pancreatic disease (NAFPD), fatty liver and insulin resistance. Adult C57BL/6 mice were fed either high-fat chow (HFC, 60% fat) or standard chow (SC, 10% fat) during a 16-week period. We evaluated in both groups: hepatopancreatic injuries, pancreatic islets size, alpha and beta-cell immunodensities, intraperitoneal insulin tolerance test (IPITT) and oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The HFC mice displayed greater mass gain (p<0.0001) and total visceral fat pads (p<0.001). OGTT showed impairment of glucose clearance in HFC mice (p<0.0001). IPITT revealed insulin resistance in HFC mice (p<0.0001). The HFC mice showed larger pancreatic islet size and significantly greater alpha and beta-cell immunodensities than SC mice. Pancreas and liver from HFC were heavier and contained higher fat concentration. In conclusion, C57BL/6 mice fed a high-fat diet develop features of NAFPD. Insulin resistance and ectopic accumulation of hepatic fat are well known to occur in MetS. Additionally, the importance of fat accumulation in the pancreas has been recently highlighted. Therefore, this model could help to elucidate target organ alterations associated with metabolic syndrome.

Substantial evidence suggests that poor intrauterine milieu elicited by maternal nutritional disturbance may programme susceptibility in the fetus to later development of chronic diseases, such as obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular disease and diabetes. One of the most interesting features of fetal programming is the evidence from several studies that the consequences may not be limited to the first-generation offspring and that it can be passed transgenerationally. In the present study, female rats (F0) were fed either a normal-protein diet [control diet (C); 19 g of protein/100 g of diet] or a low-protein diet [restricted diet (R); 5 g of protein/100 g of diet]. The offspring were termed according to the period and the types of diet the dams were fed, i.e. CC, RC, CR and RR (first letter indicates the diet during gestation and the second the diet during lactation). At 3 months of age, F1 females were bred to proven males, outside the experiment, to produce F2 offspring. At weaning, F2 offspring were divided by gender. RC1 offspring (with the number indicating the filial generation) were born with low birthweight, but afterwards they had catch-up growth, reaching the weight of the CC1 offspring. The increased glycaemia in RC1 offspring was associated with insulin resistance. CR1 and RR1 offspring had impaired growth with no changes in glucose metabolism. RC2 offspring had high BM (body mass) at birth, which was sustained over the whole experiment in male offspring. The F2 generation had more alteration in glucose metabolism than the F1 generation. CR2 and RC2 offspring had hyperglycaemia accompanied by hyperinsulinaemia and insulin resistance in both genders. CR2 offspring had an increase in body adiposity with hyperleptinaemia. In conclusion, low protein during gestation improves BM, fat mass and growth rate in F1 rats, but has adverse effects on glucose and leptin metabolism, resulting in insulin resistance in adult F1 and F2 offspring. Low protein during lactation has adverse effects on glucose, insulin and leptin metabolism, resulting in insulin resistance in adult F2 offspring. These findings suggest that low protein during gestation and/or lactation can be passed transgenerationally to the second generation.

Beige or brite (brown-in-white) adipocytes are present in white adipose tissue (WAT) and have a white fat-like phenotype that when stimulated acquires a brown fat-like phenotype, leading to increased thermogenesis. This phenomenon is known as browning and is more likely to occur in subcutaneous fat depots. Browning involves the expression of many transcription factors, such as PR domain containing 16 (PRDM16) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ, and of uncoupling protein (UCP)-1, which is the hallmark of thermogenesis. Recent papers pointed that browning can occur in the WAT of humans, with beneficial metabolic effects. This fact indicates that these cells can be targeted to treat a range of diseases, with both pharmacological and nutritional activators. Pharmacological approaches to induce browning include the use of PPAR-α agonist, adrenergic receptor stimulation, thyroid hormone administration, irisin and FGF21 induction. Most of them act through the induction of PPAR-γ coactivator (PGC) 1-α and the consequent mitochondrial biogenesis and UCP1 induction. About the nutritional inducers, several compounds have been described with multiple mechanisms of action. Some of these activators include specific amino acids restriction, capsaicin, bile acids, Resveratrol, and retinoic acid. Besides that, some classes of lipids, as well as many plant extracts, have also been implicated in the browning of WAT. In conclusion, the discovery of browning in human WAT opens the possibility to target the adipose tissue to fight a range of diseases. Studies have arisen showing promising results and bringing new opportunities in thermogenesis and obesity control.

Browning is characterized by the formation of beige/brite fat depots in subcutaneous white adipose tissue (sWAT). This study aimed to examine whether the chronic activation of PPARalpha by fenofibrate could induce beige cell depots in the sWAT of diet-induced obese mice. High-fat fed animals presented overweight, insulin resistance and displayed adverse sWAT remodeling. Fenofibrate significantly attenuated these parameters. Treated groups demonstrated active UCP-1 beige cell clusters within sWAT, confirmed through higher gene expression of PPARalpha, PPARbeta, PGC1alpha, BMP8B, UCP-1, PRDM16 and irisin in treated groups. PPARalpha activation seems to be pivotal to trigger browning through irisin induction and UCP-1 transcription, indicating that fenofibrate increased the expression of genes typical of brown adipose tissue (BAT) in the sWAT, characterizing the formation of beige cells. These findings put forward a possible role of PPARalpha as a promising therapeutic for metabolic diseases via beige cell induction.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of monotherapies and combinations of drugs on insulin sensitivity, adipose tissue morphology, and pancreatic and hepatic remodelling in C57BL/6 mice fed on a very HF (high-fat) diet. Male C57BL/6 mice were fed on an HF (60% lipids) diet or SC (standard chow; 10% lipids) diet for 10 weeks, after which time the following drug treatments began: HF-T (HF diet treated with telmisartan; 5.2 mg x kg-1 of body weight x day-1), HF-S (HF diet treated with sitagliptin; 1.08 g x kg-1 of body weight.day-1), HF-M (HF diet treated with metformin; 310.0 mg x kg-1 of body weight x day-1), HF-TM (HF diet treated with telmisartan+metformin), HF-TS (HF diet treated with telmisartan+sitagliptin) and HF-SM (HF diet treated with sitagliptin+metformin). Treated groups also had free access to the HF diet, and treatments lasted for 6 weeks. Morphometry, stereological tools, immunostaining, ELISA, Western blot analysis and electron microscopy were used. The HF diet yielded an overweight phenotype, an increase in oral glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinaemia, hypertrophied islets and adipocytes, stage 2 steatosis (>33%), and reduced liver PPAR-alpha (peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor-alpha) and GLUT-2 (glucose transporter-2) levels, concomitant with enhanced SREBP-1 (sterol-regulatory-element-binding protein-1) expression (P<0.0001). Conversely, all drug treatments resulted in significant weight loss, a reversal of insulin resistance, islet and adipocyte hypertrophy, and alleviated hepatic steatosis. Only the HF-T and HF-TS groups had body weights similar to the SC group at the end of the experiment, and the latter treatment reversed hepatic steatosis. Increased PPAR-alpha immunostaining in parallel with higher GLUT-2 and reduced SREBP-1 expression may explain the favourable hepatic outcomes. Restoration of adipocyte size was consistent with higher adiponectin levels and lower TNF-alpha (tumour necrosis factor-alpha) levels (P<0.0001) in the drug-treated groups. In conclusion, all of the drug treatments were effective in controlling the metabolic syndrome. The best results were achieved using telmisartan and sitagliptin as monotherapies or as a dual treatment, combining partial PPAR-gamma agonism and PPAR-alpha activation in the liver with extended incretin action.