This article applies the working definition of primary identity to explore the emergence of the ethnic identities in the southern-most tract of the lower Omo valley. The current identities are the result of two correlated movements, migration to the valley by organised pastoralists and scattered groups, and a move down to river and to the Omo delta where the ecological niche generated by the regular flooding of the Omo River provided a rich variety of livelihoods alternatives. The major migrations were connected to great population movements occurred in East Africa during the first half of the 19 th century. The current identities emerged out of a series of cataclysms that differently affected the various groups and their territorial distribution. The Daasanach recall the occurrence of large floods; the Nyangatom stress the destructive impact of the Ethiopian conquest; the Kwegu and the Kara were hit by sleeping sickness epidemics. The cataclysms changed the demographic balance with the natural and the reciprocal relations of power, leading to the disappearance of some of the primary groups whose existence and prosperity were recorded by the early explorers, and to processes of assimilation. The historical reconstruction here presented shows that the notion of primary groups exercising coherent governance over a broad and sometimes scattered range of resources needs to be complemented with the theoretical relevance of clusters, specific localities characterised by high interaction and co-presence of different primary groups. Clusters were important knots of culture and identity elaboration. They were the premise of the process of incorporation into the prevailing primary groups and gave the start to specific local identities. In the case of the Daasanach access to a viable pool of natural resources by a mixed population allowed the development of a lasting primary group.

This article addresses the protracted state of political violence developed in and around the Borana and Guji zones of Oromia region after the introduction of the ethnic federalism in Ethiopia. In order to account for the persistence of the role of certain groups during different phases of the conflict, an attempt is made to elaborate on the connections between ethnic identity, natural resource and customary institutions by introducing the notion of primary identity. Since the turn of the millennium there is in Ethiopia a theoretically grounded attempt to co-opt customary institutions and elders into modern governance, particularly in the pastoral sector and with reference to both the political field and development. The field-research focused on the interplay of customary and modern politics on occasion of two electoral events, the 2004 referendum organised to solve the border issue between the Somali Regional State and Oromia, and the 2005 political elections. The analysis of the political dynamics and of local political history suggests that the constitutional provisions were transformed by the federal strategic need to control the insurgency of the Oromo Liberation Front, and by the peripheral motivations bound to the primary groups. The combined effect of these two factors produced a systematic abuse of human rights and the manipulation of development and refugees policies, involving the various actors in an informal 'demographic politics of space'. As a result the Borana Oromo were displaced from a large portion of their customary territory and were relegated into a state of permanent food dependency. Under these conditions, the opportunistic cooption of elders and customary leaders can only lead to the most destructive outcomes. It is here suggested that human and indigenous rights as defined by the relevant international instruments may better contribute to constructively valorise the potentials of customary governance.

PurposeThis paper seeks to describe an attempt to assess at the local level the progress that has been internationally achieved in recognition of community and indigenous rights, and of indigenous and community conserved areas. An action‐research exercise was implemented in Ethiopia with a mobile indigenous people of evaluating customary as well as government‐led governance of the environment, with the objective of strengthening the capacity of the Borana‐Oromo to conserve their landscape.Design/methodology/approachThis paper is based on collaborative research implemented by the authors in 2002 while SOS Sahel Ethiopia was introducing collaborative forest management, and on a 2007 action research project specifically designed to broaden the scope of the involvement of the customary leadership in sustainable landscape management.FindingsThe research demonstrates the high degree of articulation and efficacy of customary governance as opposed to the failure of State‐centric attempts to protect specific areas within the broader landscape. Customary institutions, however, are increasingly delegitimised and incapable of coping with new challenges such as massive immigration, political marginalisation and de facto land privatisation.Research limitations/implicationsThe action‐research was insufficient to achieve the goal due to limitations in the national legislation, inefficiency by the government in implementing the existing policies, and the persisting practice of imposing development with insufficient prior consultation.Practical implicationsBased on an informed review of the international and national legislation and policies, the customary leaders of the Borana have released a public statement asking for support in addressing the gaps and problems they have identified, particularly achieving legal recognition of the customary institutions and customary laws in relation to biodiversity conservation. At national level it was recommended to organize a workshop on community conservation of biodiversity and community rights, with the objective of disseminating awareness about the latest instruments and Resolutions in the context of IUCN and the CBD.Originality/valueThe customary governance of the Borana is based on the gadaa generation class system, highly articulated in terms of norms and procedures. The territory is vast and it includes government‐protected areas due to the importance of the biodiversity. The case contributes to raising awareness about the relevance of legislation and enhancement of rights at national level.