We have previously demonstrated that, in preparing themselves to aim voluntary impulses of isometric elbow force to unpredictable targets, subjects selected default values for amplitude and direction according the range of targets that they expected. Once a specific target appeared, subjects specified amplitude and direction through parallel processes. Amplitude was specified continuously from an average or central default; direction was specified stochastically from one of the target directions. Using the same timed response paradigm, we now report three experiments to examine how the time available for processing target information influences trajectory characteristics in two-degree-of-freedom forces and multijoint movements. We first sought to determine whether the specification of force direction could also take the form of a discrete stochastic process in pulses of wrist muscle force, where direction can vary continuously. With four equiprobable targets (two force amplitudes in each of two directions separated by 22 degrees or 90 degrees), amplitude was specified from a central default value for both narrow and wide target separations as a continuous variable. Direction, however, remained specified as a discrete variable for wide target separations. For narrow target separations, the directional distribution of default responses suggested the presence of both discrete and central values. We next examined point-to-point movements in a multijoint planar hand movement task with targets at two distances and two directions but at five directional separations (from 30 degrees to 150 degrees separation). We found that extent was again specified continuously from a central default. Direction was specified discretely from alternative default directions when target separation was wide and continuously from a central default when separation was narrow. The specification of both extent and direction evolved over a 200-ms time period beginning about 100 ms after target presentation. As in elbow force pulses, extent was specified progressively in both correct and wrong direction responses through a progressive improvement in the scaling of acceleration and velocity peaks to the target. On the other hand, movement time and hand path straightness did not change significantly in the course of specification. Thus, the specification of movement time and linearity, global features of the trajectories, are given priority over the specific values of extent and direction. In a third experiment, we varied the distances between unidirectional target pairs and found that movement extent is specified discretely, like direction, when the disparity in distances is large. The implications of these findings for contextual effects on trajectory planning are discussed. The independence of extent and direction specification and the prior setting of response duration and straightness provide critical support for the hypothesis that point-to-point movements are planned vectorially.

The present study was undertaken to follow the development of the capability to produce adult-like fast and precise movements reaching visual targets, during childhood. A two-dimensional reaching task was used. We focussed on pre-planning capabilities, by instructing subjects to produce movements as fast as possible, preventing corrections after initiation of movement. The capability of information processing and accurate motor response production were assessed by measuring reaction time (RT, the time elapsed between target presentation and movement onset), movement time (MT, the time elapsed between movement onset and movement end) and precision of response (correlation of response extent and direction with target distance and direction). One child (male) was tested repeatedly since age 6 until age 9. At age 7, RTs decreased. At age 8, accuracy increased, after a temporary decrease at 7. Both accuracy and RT eventually reached the adult level. MTs were similar to the adult ones right from the beginning and they never changed significantly. The results were confirmed in four groups of five children each, aged 6, 7, 8 and 9, respectively. A control group of five adults was also tested. It is concluded that, between age 6 and 9, children become capable of quickly processing visual target information and producing accurate fast and uncorrected reaching trajectories based upon proprioceptive information only, like those typical of adults, by shortening RTs and improving precision, while maintaining adult-like MTs throughout. The capability of quickly reacting to a target acting as a ;Go' signal (measured by RT) and that of information processing to program an accurate motor trajectory (measured by the precision achieved) appear not to be developmentally linked, the former improving earlier, the latter later.

These experiments examine how human subjects use information from a target to trigger a response and to specify its trajectory. We first determined if response initiation is predicated on the prior specification of response amplitude by examining the latencies and trajectories of impulses of isometric elbow flexion aimed to one of three visual targets. We varied target predictability (simple versus choice), the urgency with which the response was required, and the level of practice. With practice, subjects could respond to unpredictable targets with the same latency as to predictable ones; the range of response amplitudes was, however, always constricted. This central tendency bias disappeared when subjects were allowed long latencies to respond to the target, suggesting that with urgency, subjects can respond before specification is complete. To determine the time course of specification, the subjects were trained to initiate force impulses in synchrony with the last of a series of predictable tones. They also attempted to match the amplitude of their force impulses to one of three unpredictable visual targets presented at randomly varying times (50–400 ms) prior to the synchronizing tone. At the shortest stimulus-response intervals, before target information could be processed, the amplitudes of responses to all targets were clustered around that of the middle-sized target. Then, as the stimuli-response interval increased, response amplitudes gradually converged upon their specific targets. Specification started at stimulus-response intervals of about 100 ms and extended until about 350 ms. We conclude that (1) subjects prepare an adaptive or default response prior to the occurrence of the target; (2) the specification of response amplitude is a gradual process by which the dimensions of the default are adjusted according to target information, and (3) amplitude specification begins earlier and terminates later than the time needed to initiate the motor response or reaction time.

This study was undertaken in order to determine the time course of the process by which information derived from a visual target is used to accurately set the amplitude of a simple motor response. We refer to this process as response specification. Separate auditory and visual cues were given to the subjects in order to independently control the moment of response initiation and the time available for processing amplitude information from the target. Six subjects initiated impulses of isometric force in synchrony with the last of predictable series of regular tones. Response amplitudes were to match one of three visual target steps occurring at random times between 0 and 400 ms before the response-synchronizing tone. Using these separate auditory and visual cues, we were able to systematically vary the time interval between target presentation and response onset, termed here Stimulus-Response or S-R interval. Target steps were presented in blocks of either predictable (simple condition) or unpredictable (choice condition) amplitudes. The peak forces and the peaks of their time derivatives were analyzed to determine how subjects achieved accuracy under the different conditions and at different S-R intervals. The trajectories of responses produced in the simple condition were independent of the S-R interval. In contrast, when targets were presented in unpredictable order, the distribution of the peak forces of the subjects' responses depended on the S-R interval. At short S-R intervals (less than 125 ms), subjects made responses whose peak forces were distributed around the center of the range of target steps. These responses formed a unimodal, but broad distribution which was independent of actual target amplitude. With increasing S-R interval (greater than 125 ms), the distributions of peak forces gradually shifted toward the correct target amplitudes, with the means reaching the appropriate amplitudes at S-R intervals of 250-400 ms. At S-R intervals comparable to a reaction time, the range of peak forces was constricted to a similar extent as previously observed in a reaction time task (Hening et al. 1988). We found that the gradual improvement of accuracy was not achieved through changes in trajectory control: at all S-R intervals, subjects utilized a pulse-height control policy (Gordon and Ghez 1987a). Different peak forces were achieved by varying the rate of rise of force, while force rise time was held relatively invariant.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

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