The bladder has only two essential functions. It stores and periodically empties liquid waste. Yet it is unique as a visceral organ, allowing integrated volitional and autonomous control of continence and voiding. Normal function tests the integrity of the nervous system at all levels, extending from the neuroepithelium of the bladder wall to the frontal cortex of the brain. Thus, dysfunction is common with impairment of either the central or peripheral nervous system. This monograph presents an overview of the neural control of the bladder as it is currently understood. A description of pertinent peripheral anatomy and neuroanatomy is provided, followed by an explanation of common neurophysiological tests of the lower urinary tract and associated structures, including both urodynamic and electrodiagnostic approaches. Clinical applications are included to illustrate the impact of nervous system dysfunction on the bladder and to provide indications for testing.

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These findings suggest that 1) grade has little effect on relative economies of DP and V1, possibly because of a lower effectiveness of force application with V1 when going uphill, and 2) large differences in roller ski rolling resistance should have no effect on the cardiovascular training adaptations that result from uphill roller skiing with V1.