The correlations between malnutrition, parasitosis (especially helminth infections), and child development are complex, and studies of these interrelationships will allow health agencies to maximize screening and intervention strategies for developing countries. We examined these correlations in a cross-sectional program in Carazo State, Nicaragua. Nine hundred sixty-one children in two age strata (ages 0-24 months and ages 2-10 years) from one urban and three rural communities were screened for intestinal parasites (direct smear and ZnSO 4 flotation), malnutrition, and developmental delays. Nutritional status was determined as weight-forage (WFA), weight-for-height (WFH), and height-forage (HFA). Developmental status (normal, suspect) was determined for the four subtests of the Denver II Screening Test. The prevalence of malnutrition was 14.6% (WFA), 8.4% (WFH), and 36.3% (HFA). Parasitosis was more prevalent in children less than 24 months of age with low HFA, whereas in older children low WFA was more closely associated with parasitic infections. Ascaris and Trichuris were more prevalent in malnourished children. On the Denver II, suspect test results in all four categories (language, social, gross motor, and fine motor) were associated with low WFA, and suspect language tests were associated with both intestinal parasites (P ϭ 0.0003) and Ascaris infection in particular (P ϭ 0.044). Developmental disabilities are a significant and frequently undetected health problem in developing countries, and malnutrition associated with intestinal helminth infections may be an important contributory factor for these disabilities.

Objective To evaluate associations of perinatal HIV infection (PHIV), HIV disease severity, and combination antiretroviral treatment with age at pubertal onset. Design Analysis of data from two U.S. longitudinal cohort studies [IMPAACT 219C and PHACS AMP], conducted 2000–2012, including PHIV and HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) youth. Tanner stage assessments of pubertal status (breast and pubic hair in girls; genitalia and pubic hair in boys) were conducted annually. Methods We compared the timing of pubertal onset (Tanner stage ≥2) between PHIV and HEU youth using interval-censored models. For PHIV youth, we evaluated associations of HIV disease severity and combination antiretroviral treatment with age at pubertal onset, adjusting for race/ethnicity and birth cohort. Results The mean age at pubertal onset was significantly later for the 2086 PHIV youth compared to 453 HEU children (10.3 vs 9.6, 10.5 vs 10.0, 11.3 vs 10.4, and 11.5 vs 10.7 years according to female breast, female pubic hair, male genitalia, and male pubic hair staging, respectively, all p<0.001). PHIV youth with HIV-1 RNA viral load >10,000 copies/mL (vs ≤10,000 copies/mL) or CD4% <15% (vs ≥15%) had significantly later pubertal onset (by 4–13 months). Each additional year of combination antiretroviral treatment was associated with a 0.6- to1.2-month earlier mean age at pubertal onset, but this trend did not persist after adjustment for birth cohort. Conclusions Pubertal onset occurs significantly later in PHIV than in HEU youth, especially among those with more severe HIV disease. However, in the current era, combination antiretroviral treatment may result in more normal timing of pubertal onset.

Adolescents have the capacity to improve their immunologic status with HAART. Lower than expected success in virologic control is related to lack of adherence, and efforts to improve treatment outcome must stress measures to assure adherence to medication.

Generally parents of HIV-infected children 6 months to 4 years and 5 to 11 years of age generally reported lower mean QoL scores than did parents of uninfected children, although worse psychological functioning was reported for uninfected children. HIV-infected adolescents not receiving antiretroviral treatment had worse health perceptions and symptoms. We found no consistent QoL differences among children receiving different antiretroviral regimens.

Although BMI and total body fat were significantly lower in the HIV-infected children than in the HEU children, body fat distribution in the HIV-infected children followed a pattern associated with cardiovascular disease risk and possibly related to specific antiretroviral drugs.