There have been various explanations in archaeological literature about whether the earliest Bronze Age stone-cist graves and the first Pre-Roman Iron Age tarand graves in Estonia were built by locals or non-locals. As to possible immigrations, the stone-cist graves have been often related to Scandinavian populations, whilst early tarand graves allegedly had roots in eastern directions. The oldest known examples of these cemetery types are at Jõelähtme and Muuksi for stone-cist graves, and at Ilmandu and Kunda for early tarand graves, in the coastal zone of northern Estonia. In order to test the migration hypothesis we carried out a bioarchaeological study, measuring and mapping local biologically available Sr and O isotope ratios and analysing stable isotope signals of altogether eight individuals from these early stone-cist and tarand graves. The study material was chosen on the basis of the oldest AMS dates of skeletons available so far, or according to the earliest burial constructions in the cemeteries. Based on the comparison of local biologically available Sr and O isotopic baseline results and the results obtained from the individuals, we can talk about migrants in the case of two persons from Kunda and perhaps one from Muuksi, whilst most of the individuals analysed are of local origin. Thus, the idea of Early Metal Period migrations to Estonia from the surrounding regions is supported to some extent. However, the discussion of these migrations might turn out to be surprisingly different from what is expected on the basis of material culture. We also emphasise the importance of further analysis, especially mapping isotopic baseline data in the eastern Baltics, in order to draw further conclusions about the directions and extent of prehistoric migration in this region.

Abstract. Fire cultivation is possibly the agricultural land-use method of the longest duration in Estonia; yet still it has attracted little attention from researchers. The aim of this paper is two-fold: firstly, to discuss the latest stage of historical bushland management via fire cultivation as it appears in historical sources, and secondly to look for ways in which the natural historical research methods can be combined with those of the humanities in search of more complex understanding of land-use dynamics. The material analysed are the 19 th century agrarian laws and ethnographic data. These sources show that researchers have so far rather under-than overestimated the persistence and spread of fire use -a number of fire cultivation cases are reported even from the early 20th century from different parts of Estonia. Thus we suggest that bushland management with fire cultivation methods has continued longer than previously assumed. Analysis of the 19 th century Livonian agrarian laws shows that legislation of the period directed the land-use pattern away from the earlier practice of a mosaic or scattered patchwork of wooded areas and cleared fields, towards bigger wooded areas and more compact cultivated areas, thus bringing about changes in the landscape.

Abstract:The article presents the results of three burial experiments, carried out in 2005, the aim of which was to attempt to understand what exactly happens to a physical body after death in different environments. The experiments were simulations of an open air burial, a stone cist burial and a cremation, for which the dead bodies of a calf and pigs were used. Next to technical documentation, the emotions and impressions of the experiment participants during the observations of body decomposition and the cremation process were recorded. The authors suggest that a cognitive approach to burial experiments could offer us an alternative view to understanding rituals and interpreting prehistoric burials.Key words: experimental archaeology, burial experiments, cremation, cognitive archaeology Bystanders often find it amazing how archaeologists constantly aspire to reconstruct societies consisting of complex human relationships and versatile behavioural patterns on the basis of mute artefacts. The nature of funerary practices, ritual systems, Weltanschauung and religion is surmised on the basis of the structure of burial places, extant skeletons and grave goods. In addition to analysing the funerary rituals and religion, burial material has been employed in researching the clothing, weaponry, and other mundane problems of the everyday life. In fact, archaeology has few means of its own for making interpretations. It is impossible to observe objects in the process of creation or use and there is nobody to ask from how, why and for which reason have certain objects been created or used. This is why archaeologists have relied on theories posed by anthropologists, sociologists, theologians, and other scholars of various fields which study modern living societies. The ambiguity of selection criteria, however, renders the popularity of certain theories and the adaptation of theories rather arbitrary.In scholarly research of prehistory, authors are increasingly favouring experimental archaeology as a method for defining ways of interpretations. Experimental archaeology enables scholars to arrive at an understanding through http://haldjas.folklore.ee/folklore/vol37/burial.pdf

This paper examines two acts in the history of village settlement. First, village as part of the fort-and-settlement complex. Second, the disintegration of this complex and development of a new network of power relations, as well as a settlement pattern. Those events reflect the stages in the processes of the urbanization and feudalization of society. The paper is based on the archaeological research of the village of Linnaaluste in the vicinity of the hill fort of Keava in northern Estonia. 1

Two unique Pre-Viking Age ship burials were found from Salme village, Saaremaa Island, eastern Baltic Sea, containing remains of seven men in the smaller and 34 men in the larger ship. According to the archaeological interpretations, these ships belonged to a viking crew possibly from the Stockholm-Mälaren region, eastern Sweden. Geoarchaeological research was conducted in the area to reconstruct Late-Holocene relative sea-level (RSL) changes and shoreline displacement to provide environmental context to these burials. In this paper we present a Late-Holocene shore displacement curve for the Saaremaa Island and GIS-based palaeogeographic reconstructions for the Salme area. The curve shows an almost linear RSL fall from 5.5 to 0.8 m a.s.l. between 1000 BC and 1300 AD with an average rate of 2 mm/year. A slowdown in regression may be attributed to accelerated sea-level rise after the Little Ice Age and during the industrial period, being consistent with the tide-gauge measurements from the 20th century. Palaeogeographic reconstructions indicate the existence of a strait in the Salme area during the burial of the ships. The eastern part of the strait with water depth up to 2.8 m was about 80–100 m wide. The relatively steep and wind-protected shores in that part of the strait were probably the best places in the area for landing the viking ships. According to sedimentological evidence and diatom data, the narrowing of Salme palaeostrait occurred between 1270 and 1300 AD. Salme I and II ships were buried at 650–770 AD into the sandy-gravelly coastal deposits which had accumulated there in the open coastal zone about 710–450 years earlier. Reconstructions show that the ships were located about 2–2.5 m above coeval sea level and more than 100 m from the coastline. Thus, both ships were probably moved from the shore to the higher ground for burial.