exo-Methylene lactone group-containing compounds, such as (−)-xanthatin, are present in a large variety of biologically active natural products, including extracts of Xanthium strumarium (Cocklebur). These substances are reported to possess diverse functional activities, exhibiting anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, and anticancer potential. In this study, we synthesized six structurally related xanthanolides containing exo-methylene lactone moieties, including (−)-xanthatin and (+)-8-epi-xanthatin, and examined the effects of these chemically defined substances on the highly aggressive and farnesyltransferase inhibitor (FTI)-resistant MDA-MB-231 cancer cell line. The results obtained demonstrate that (−)-xanthatin was a highly effective inhibitor of MDA-MB-231 cell growth, inducing caspase-independent cell death, and that these effects were independent of FTase inhibition. Further, our results show that among the GADD45 isoforms, GADD45γ was selectively induced by (−)-xanthatin and that GADD45γ-primed JNK and p38 signaling pathways are, at least in part, involved in mediating the growth inhibition and potential anticancer activities of this agent. Given that GADD45γ is becoming increasingly recognized for its tumor suppressor function, the results presented here suggest the novel possibility that (−)-xanthatin may have therapeutic value as a selective inducer of GADD45γ in human cancer cells, in particular in FTI-resistant aggressive breast cancers.

Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) has been reported as possessing antiestrogenic activity, although the mechanisms underlying these effects are poorly delineated. In this study, we used the estrogen receptor α (ERα)-positive human breast cancer cell line, MCF-7, as an experimental model and showed that Δ9-THC exposures markedly suppresses 17β-estradiol (E2)- induced MCF-7 cell proliferation. We demonstrate that these effects result from Δ9-THC’s ability to inhibit E2-liganded ERα activation. Mechanistically, the data obtained from biochemical analyses revealed that (i) Δ9-THC up-regulates ERβ, a repressor of ERα, inhibiting the expression of E2/ERα-regulated genes that promote cell growth and that (ii) Δ9-THC induction of ERβ modulates E2/ERα signaling in the absence of direct interaction with the E2 ligand binding site. Therefore, the data presented support the concept that Δ9-THC’s antiestrogenic activities are mediated by the ERβ disruption of E2/ERα signaling.

We recently reported that Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), a major cannabinoid component in Cannabis Sativa (marijuana), significantly stimulated the expression of fatty acid 2 hydroxylase (FA2H) in human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) was previously implicated in this induction. However, the mechanisms mediating this induction have not been elucidated in detail. We performed a DNA microarray analysis of Δ9-THC treated samples and showed the selective up-regulation of the PPARα isoform coupled with the induction of FA2H over the other isoforms (β and γ). Δ-THC itself had no binding/activation potential to/on PPARα, and palmitic acid (PA), a PPARα ligand, exhibited no stimulatory effects on FA2H in MDA MB 231 cells; thus, we hypothesized that the levels of PPARα induced were involved in the Δ9-THC mediated increase in FA2H. In support of this hypothesis, we herein demonstrated that; (i) Δ9 THC activated the basal transcriptional activity of PPARα in a concentration-dependent manner, (ii) the concomitant up-regulation of PPARα/FA2H was caused by Δ9-THC, (iii) PA could activate PPARα after the PPARα expression plasmid was introduced, and (iv) the Δ9-THC induced up regulation of FA2H was further stimulated by the co-treatment with L-663,536 (a known PPARα inducer). Taken together, these results support the concept that the induced levels of PPARα may be involved in the Δ9 THC up-regulation of FA2H in MDA-MB-231 cells.

An electron donor-connecting water-soluble porphyrin, meso-(1-pyrenyl)-tris(N-methyl-p-pyridinio)porphyrin, did not demonstrate singlet oxygen generating activity under photo-irradiation. The interaction with DNA successfully recovered the photosensitized singlet oxygen generation by this porphyrin.

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