Current first-line artemisinin antimalarials are threatened by the emergence of resistant Plasmodium falciparum. Decreased sensitivity is evident in the initial (early ring) stage of intraerythrocytic development, meaning that it is crucial to understand the action of artemisinins at this stage. Here, we examined the roles of iron (Fe) ions and haem in artemisinin activation in early rings using Fe ion chelators and a specific haemoglobinase inhibitor (E64d). Quantitative modelling of the antagonism accounted for its complex dependence on the chemical features of the artemisinins and on the drug exposure time, and showed that almost all artemisinin activity in early rings (>80%) is due to haem-mediated activation. The surprising implication that haemoglobin uptake and digestion is active in early rings is supported by identification of active haemoglobinases (falcipains) at this stage. Genetic down-modulation of the expression of the two main cysteine protease haemoglobinases, falcipains 2 and 3, renders early ring stage parasites resistant to artemisinins. This confirms the important role of haemoglobin-degrading falcipains in artemisinin activation, and shows that changes in the rate of artemisinin activation could mediate high-level artemisinin resistance.
During the intraerythrocytic stage of its lifecycle, the malaria parasite digests host erythrocyte hemoglobin, producing free ferriprotoporhyrin IX (FP). Crystallization of FP into hemozoin is essential for its detoxification and is the target of quinoline antimalarials. To gain further insight into the mechanism of hemozoin formation and quinoline action we have studied the behavior of FP and related derivatives in 40% methanol in water at different concentrations across a broad pH range (2-12). The complex behavior of FP can be modeled by incorporating a pH-dependent dimerization constant that reflects the influence of the ionization state of the propionate groups on the level of self-association. The analysis reveals that aqua-ligated FP has a low propensity to self-associate and that the predominant self-associated species are homodimeric hydroxide-ligated FP and heterodimeric aqua/hydroxide-ligated FP. The latter is predicted to be the main self-associated species at the pH of the parasite digestive vacuole. The state of FP also affects its interaction with chloroquine, with maximum affinity under neutral conditions and a more than 1,000-fold decrease in affinity under acidic (pH 2) and basic (pH 12) conditions. First-derivative absorption spectra of the chloroquine-FP complex indicate that the high-affinity interaction requires the chloroquine ring in its neutral aminoquinoline form and this in turn requires at least one of the FP species in the complex to be aqua-ligated.
ResumenCon el fin de determinar el comportamiento de las diferente poblaciones linfocitarias, a través de los diferentes estadios clínicos de la infección por elvirus de inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) establecidos por el CDC, se realizaron tipificaciones de linfocitos T, B, T CD4 y T CD8 en 155 individuos VIH positivos del ISS en Cali, utilizando la técnica de inmunocitoquimica de los complejos fosfatasa alcalina-antifosfatasa alcalina (APAAP) en extendidos de sangre periférica.En los pacientes del estadio II, los linfocitos T, B y CD4 se encontraron dentro de los valores normales para la población general, mientras que los CD8 estaban aumentados. En el estadio III, el comportamiento de las poblaciones de linfocitos fue similar salvo un ligero aumento de los linfocitos B. Estos estadios sólo se diferenciaron clínicamente por la presencia de adenopatias.En el estadio IVse observó una marcada depleción detodas las poblaciones linfocitarias estudiadas.En virtud al aumento temprano de CD8 en los estadios II y III, la relación CD41CD8 presenta alteraciones y es menor de 1 ,O aunque el recuento de CD4 en estos estadios sea normal. Sin embargo, cuando ocurre ladepleción general en el estadio IV, su utilidad es limitada y el recuento absoluto de CD4 es el indicador más útil en la progresión de la enfermedad.En virtud a que el recuento de linfocitos CD4 y CD8 constituye un pilar y en él se orientan la mayoría de las conductas profilácticas y de tratamiento que se adoptan en los VIH positivos, se hace necesario conducir los esfuerzos para hacer más asequible esta metodología a los pacientes, así como plantear la implementación de otras pruebas evaluadoras de la inmunidad, útiles como indicadores de la progresión de la enfermedad. SummaryT, B, T CD4 and T CD8 lymphocyte typifying, using the immunochemical technique of complex alkaline phosphatase-alkaline antiphosphatase (APAAP) in thin smears, was carried out on 155
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