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The aim of the present review is to synthesis findings from studies on the relationship between socioeconomic position (SEP) and incidence, prevalence and mortality of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in Europe between the years 1999 and 2009. A systematic search was carried out in the National Library of Medicine's PubMed database. The search was limited to articles published between January 1999 and December 2009, in English or Spanish. Additional requirements for inclusion were: (i) presentation of empirical results directly related with SEP and the prevalence, incidence or mortality of diabetes, (ii) dealing with T2DM, (iii) carried out in Europe, and (iv) mainly focused only on diabetes. Of the 19 articles found, twelve studied the relationship between SEP and the prevalence of T2DM, two dealt with diabetes incidence, three with mortality and two studied both inequalities in mortality and prevalence. People with more deprived SEP have greater incidence, more prevalence and higher mortality due to T2DM, although the magnitude and significance of the associations varied from one study to another. Part of these inequalities is explained by SEP differences in the prevalence of the established T2DM risk factors. SEP inequalities in T2DM tended to be greater in women than in men. There is consistent evidence that SEP inequalities in T2DM incidence, prevalence and mortality are present in Europe, especially among women. Improving accessibility of physical activity in terms of both price and availability, access to healthy food, and access to health services, will be key to achieving a reduction of SEP related diabetes inequalities in Europe.

BackgroundOur aim is to conduct an exploratory study to provide an in-depth characterization of a neighborhood’s social and physical environment in relation to cardiovascular health. A mixed-methods approach was used to better understand the food, alcohol, tobacco and physical activity domains of the urban environment.MethodsWe conducted this study in an area of 16,000 residents in Madrid (Spain). We obtained cardiovascular health and risk factors data from all residents aged 45 and above using Electronic Health Records from the Madrid Primary Health Care System. We used several quantitative audit tools to assess: the type and location of food outlets and healthy food availability; tobacco and alcohol points of sale; walkability of all streets and use of parks and public spaces. We also conducted 11 qualitative interviews with key informants to help understanding the relationships between urban environment and cardiovascular behaviors. We integrated quantitative and qualitative data following a mixed-methods merging approach.ResultsElectronic Health Records of the entire population of the area showed similar prevalence of risk factors compared to the rest of Madrid/Spain (prevalence of diabetes: 12 %, hypertension: 34 %, dyslipidemia: 32 %, smoking: 10 %, obesity: 20 %). The food environment was very dense, with many small stores (n = 44) and a large food market with 112 stalls. Residents highlighted the importance of these small stores for buying healthy foods. Alcohol and tobacco environments were also very dense (n = 91 and 64, respectively), dominated by bars and restaurants (n = 53) that also acted as food services. Neighbors emphasized the importance of drinking as a socialization mechanism. Public open spaces were mostly used by seniors that remarked the importance of accessibility to these spaces and the availability of destinations to walk to.ConclusionThis experience allowed testing and refining measurement tools, drawn from epidemiology, geography, sociology and anthropology, to better understand the urban environment in relation to cardiovascular health.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12874-016-0213-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Could not answer ‡(<6 y.o.) n=20 Enrolled COVID-19 patients n=30Olfactory and/or gustatory dysfunction n=8 Without olfactory or gustatory dysfunction n=22 Olfactory and gustatory dysfunction n=5Asymptomatic patients n=40 COVID-19 patients n= 50Positive SARS-CoV-2-RT-PCR † patients N= 92 Declined to participate n= 2Gustatory dysfunction only n=3 † Exclusion criteria previously established. ‡ RT-PCR reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction

Cities, and therefore neighborhoods, are under constant change. Neighborhood changes may affect residents’ health in multiple ways. The Heart Healthy Hoods (HHH) project studies the association between neighborhood and residents’ health. Focusing on a middle–low-socioeconomic neighborhood in Madrid (Spain), our aim was to describe qualitatively its residents’ perceptions on the urban changes and their impacts on health. We designed a qualitative study using 16 semi-structured interviews including adult residents and professionals living or working in the area. Firstly, we described the perceived main social and neighborhood changes. Secondly, we studied how these neighborhood changes connected to residents’ health perceptions. Perceived major social changes were new demographic composition, new socio–cultural values and economic changes. Residents’ negative health perceptions were the reduction of social relationships, increase of stress and labor precariousness. Positive health perceptions were the creation of supportive links, assimilation of self-care activities and the change in traditional roles. Neighborhood changes yielded both negative and positive effects on residents’ health. These effects would be the result of the interrelation of different elements such as the existence or absence of social ties, family responsibilities, time availability, economic resources and access and awareness to health-promoting programs. These qualitative research results provide important insight into crafting urban health policies that may ultimately improve health outcomes in communities undergoing change.