Between 2012 and 2016, UNESCO registered 530 deaths of journalists. They also published a statistic showing that television journalists were the most killed, followed by print media, radio and online journalists. Hinted in this statistics is the need to understand the relationship between the medium through which and in which the journalists produce news and the threats and dangers posed to them. In this article, we discuss this interlinkage and call it medium-specific threats. As examples of this interlinkage, we describe the cases of community radio journalists in the Philippines, photojournalists in Afghanistan and online journalists in Venezuela. Based on these examples from independently conducted studies from very different parts of the world, we make the broader case that while recognizing the prevailing political-economic and socio-cultural factors and forces at work in these media systems-in-flux, investigations of mediumspecific threats to journalists are needed for more nuanced understanding of and thus mitigation of journalists' insecurities.

To be a journalist in Venezuela is very dangerous. In the past decade, there has been an increase of attacks against media and their personnel. On the one hand, attacks against journalists include harassment (physical, digital, legal), illegal detentions, kidnapping, and assassination. On the other hand, digital media have experienced blockages (DNS), internet shutdowns and slow-downs, failures in the connection, and restrictions to access internet-based platforms and content. Since 2014, the situation is deteriorating and limitations to exercise the right to freedom of expression have increased. However, this issue remains understudied; hence, this chapter considers primary and secondary data to analyze the types of limitations experienced by Venezuelan digital journalists from 2014 to 2018, explains the effects of ambiguous regulations and the use of problematic interpretations, and describes the inadequacies of national policies to promote freedom of the press.

The Venezuelan government has been instrumental to implement different types of gender-based violence and discrimination. Reports demonstrate that women have been killed, that their economic power decreased, and that they experienced problems related to access to education, health services, jobs, etc. This reality affects all women; however, there is not updated and systematized information about the problems faced by Venezuelan women journalists. This chapter uses Mohanty's theory and Hernandez's approach to illustrate the situation. It begins with an overview of the Venezuelan context, highlighting cases of gender-based violence and discrimination experienced by women. It also considers cases of economic exploitation, exclusion, disempowerment, cultural imperialism, and direct violence between 2018 and 2019. The chapter demonstrates the deteriorating situation and reveals patterns of oppression experienced by female journalists in Venezuela.

The Venezuelan government has been instrumental to implement different types of gender-based violence and discrimination. Reports demonstrate that women have been killed, that their economic power decreased, and that they experienced problems related to access to education, health services, jobs, etc. This reality affects all women; however, there is not updated and systematized information about the problems faced by Venezuelan women journalists. This chapter uses Mohanty's theory and Hernandez's approach to illustrate the situation. It begins with an overview of the Venezuelan context, highlighting cases of gender-based violence and discrimination experienced by women. It also considers cases of economic exploitation, exclusion, disempowerment, cultural imperialism, and direct violence between 2018 and 2019. The chapter demonstrates the deteriorating situation and reveals patterns of oppression experienced by female journalists in Venezuela.