† Equal levels of contribution (names arranged alphabetically within each level). ‡ Equal levels of contribution (names arranged alphabetically within each level). § Equal levels of contribution (names arranged alphabetically within each level). Equal levels of contribution (names arranged alphabetically within each level).

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How did monolingual bias emerge and why does it persist? What exactly is language? Why and howdo language and languages develop? What do the terms ‘monolingual’, ‘bilingual’, and ‘multilingual’mean? What does “typical” language development entail? What constitutes “atypical” languagedevelopment? To answer these questions, this paper builds on the premise that language is a humancognitive skill for communication and that Western notions of language diversity, monolingualism,bilingualism, and multilingualism disseminate monolingual bias. Monolingual bias is then linked toconceptual issues on “typical” and “atypical” language development, as evidenced by extant researchand clinical practices. Ultimately, this paper explains why the notion of bilingualism in the Westernresearch literature is less relevant for some, if not most, of the world’s multilingual contexts,especially in the Philippines.

This paper makes the case that ableist ideologies hinder trends towards inclusion, as evidenced by keyliterature and legislations on inclusive education. I also discuss the issues, challenges, and dilemmasgenerated by these ableist ideologies in my professional context as an autistic speech-languagetherapist from the Philippines. I conclude with my reflection on how practitioners can help change thetrajectory towards emancipatory inclusive practices that are informed by the neurodiversity paradigm.To respect the preference of the communities I represent, this paper uses identity-first language(American Psychological Association, 2019; Bottema-Beutel et al., 2020; The Alliance for InclusiveEducation, 2021) when writing about pupils or learners who are traditionally identified by theeducation sector as needing “special education”.