Objectives: Bystander studies have rarely considered the victimization risk associated with intervention into violent, dangerous emergencies. To address this gap, we aim to identify factors that influence bystanders' risk of being physically victimized. Methods:We observed bystander behavior from video surveillance footage of naturally occurring violence in night-time economy settings, and data was analyzed with a logistic regression model. Results: Data shows that approximately one out of six interventions results in some type of victimization, typically with a relatively low degree of severity. The bystander's social group membership, the setting of the emergency, and the bystander's intervention type are estimated as risk factors for victimization. Conclusions: Previous research suggests that a bystander's social group membership with victims promotes intervention behavior. Our results expand the role of social group membership as being a factor that also influences whether the intervening bystander is victimized.

Post-aggression consolation is assumed to occur in humans as well as in chimpanzees. While consolation following peer aggression has been observed in children, systematic evidence of consolation in human adults is rare. We used surveillance camera footage of the immediate aftermath of nonfatal robberies to observe the behaviors and characteristics of victims and bystanders. Consistent with empathy explanations, we found that consolation was linked to social closeness rather than physical closeness. While females were more likely to console than males, males and females were equally likely to be consoled. Furthermore, we show that high levels of threat during the robbery increased the likelihood of receiving consolation afterwards. These patterns resemble post-aggression consolation in chimpanzees and suggest that emotions of empathic concern are involved in consolation across humans and chimpanzees.

Objectives: Bystander studies have rarely considered the victimization risk associated with intervention into violent, dangerous emergencies. To address this gap, we aim to identify factors that influence bystanders' risk of being physically victimized. Method: We observed bystander behavior from video surveillance footage of naturally occurring violence in nighttime economy settings, and data were analyzed with a logistic regression model. Results: Data show that approximately one of the six interventions results in some type of victimization, typically with a relatively low degree of severity.

She also holds a position at Norwegian Social Research (NOVA) at Oslo Metropolitan University. Her research interests are gender, sexuality, power and law and she has published books, articles and chapters internationally on how Nordic governments and civil society actors approach prostitution, human trafficking, child sexual abuse and sexual violence.

This is the accepted manuscript (post-print version) of the article. In terms of content, the post-print version is identical to the final published version, but there may be differences in typography, layout and language edits.