Environmental DNA (eDNA) and invertebrate‐derived DNA (iDNA) have been increasingly recognized as powerful tools for biodiversity assessment and conservation management. However, eDNA/iDNA efficiency for vertebrate diversity assessment remains uncertain, and comparisons to conventional methods are still rare. Through a meta‐analysis of previously published vertebrate diversity surveys, we compared the efficiency of eDNA/iDNA against conventional methods across several types of samplers, vertebrate groups, and locations (tropical vs. temperate zones). We also assess eDNA/iDNA efficiency to estimate relative abundance or biomass over different molecular methods (qPCR and metabarcoding) and type of experiment (in the laboratory or in the field). We showed that for water sampler, fish as a target species, and studies achieved in temperate zones, eDNA presents lower risk of not detecting a species or a site with a target species than conventional methods. These results show that eDNA is an efficient tool to assess fish diversity. Moreover, eDNA data presents positive correlation with fish abundance or biomass. However, such correlation was higher in laboratory experiments than in the field. For the other samplers, vertebrate groups, and in tropical zones we were not able to draw general conclusion, highlighting the urgency of conducting more comparative studies.

Typically, males of polygamous mammals are responsible for population connectivity and gene flow via dispersal, whereas females, showing stronger philopatry, strengthen local population stability and growth. These expectations can be disrupted by human disturbances; however, this possibility has been poorly examined in wide‐ranging mammals that are important targets for conservation. By reviewing philopatry and dispersal in felids, we aimed to evaluate: 1) whether the sex‐related patterns of philopatry and dispersal predicted for polygamous mammals are prevalent in felids, 2) possible major causes underlying each of these behaviours, and 3) if, and to what extent, anthropogenic disturbances can alter patterns of philopatry and dispersal in this animal lineage. We synthesised the available literature (n = 55 papers) comprising 12 species. Puma concolor was the most‐studied species, followed by other large species. Both philopatry and dispersal were heterogeneously defined, depending on the study aim and the method employed (telemetry, camera trapping or molecular tools). Most species followed the predicted philopatric and dispersal patterns, and most study areas (76%) were under some type of anthropogenic disturbance drivers. Philopatry was linked to females’ higher dependency on the quality and availability of resources, and to their social dynamics, higher reproductive success, inclusive fitness and demographic aspects of population. Dispersal was frequently linked to competition for mates and resources, and inbreeding avoidance. However, some plasticity was observed in both philopatry and dispersal, especially under the presence of anthropogenic drivers. For example, hunting can create open territories, increasing the number of philopatric females and opportunistic philopatric males. Habitat fragmentation can increase population isolation and male dispersal distance, and the presence of anthropogenic or natural barriers can result in unsuccessful dispersal attempts. We postulate that human activities affect long‐term population persistence in the Felidae, via disruption of sex‐related patterns of spatial dynamics.

Habitat loss and fragmentation threaten population persistence because they affect the individuals’ ability to disperse between remaining habitat patches and reduce areas of refuge for populations. In cougars (Puma concolor), males are predominantly dispersers while females tend to be philopatric. To examine cougar philopatry and dispersal ability in a human-dominated landscape in Brazil, we performed relatedness and spatial autocorrelation analyses based on genetic samples of cougars inhabiting forest fragments within a human-modified matrix, a continuous forest, and a pool of road-killed individuals. Our expectation was that females would be more related to each other and show a more positive autocorrelation than males in areas with less human disturbance because male dispersal would not be constrained. We found similarly high relatedness and a positive spatial autocorrelation at the shortest spatial scale (0-100 km) for both males and females from the forest fragments within a human-modified matrix. We also detected higher male:female ratio from roadkills, likely due to males’ higher tendency to disperse. Our results confirm female philopatry in the forest fragments. However, high relatedness and positive autocorrelation also observed for males in these fragments suggest male kin clustering, which could be a result of unsuccessful dispersal. Cougar unsuccessful dispersal has already been reported in North America in response to human-altered landscapes, but here we present the first evidence of this process in a South American cougar population. Further research is warranted to assess the specific causes of male unsuccessful dispersal and how it can affect species persistence in human-dominated landscapes.