Gender inequality can differ by education attainment of the unemployed. Discrepancy between education attainment of the unemployed changed too. Nowadays, the ratio between primary and tertiary education in unemployment is higher than ever before in Spain and the European Union. Inequality among unemployed people in Switzerland couldn't be proven. Gender inequality in unemployment by education attainment and convergence of education attainment of the unemployed in the European Union, Spain and Switzerland was examined in this paper. Analysis has been carried out using unit-root test which allows for one structural break. With this method, we have examined the validity of hysteresis in unemployment gender inequality by education attainment and discrepancy between education attainment of the unemployed, analysed persistence of inequality and influence of the random shocks on them. Discrepancies between education attainment of the unemployed were compared by genders with Paired samples t-test. Women are still at a disadvantage compared to men, random economic shocks have low or non-existent impact on the gender gap and education attainment discrepancies in analysed countries and the European Union, and their impact has been just temporary. Education attainment discrepancy increased among the unemployed in Spain and the European Union, this could be the consequence of companies changed preference of employee education. They preferred employees with higher education attainment before those with lower education attainment.

Gender inequality is persistent in the labor market despite equality between genders being one of the fundamental principles of the EU law. This is a reason why we have decided to analyze gender inequality in unemployment rates of the 27 European Union countries. Unemployment gender inequality differs across EU countries. There are countries where gender gap is persistent, but there are also countries where gender gap changed during the observed period of 2005Q1-2017Q2. Moreover, in some countries gender inequality decreased, while in others it was steady. Unemployment rates differ across countries similarly as unemployment gender inequality does, therefore, by choosing these countries, we have obtained a portfolio of distinct behaviors throughout the time. We have also obtained the relations between them. We test the hypothesis of the hysteresis to check the relation between the unemployment gender inequality and the unemployment rate levels, gender disadvantaged through unemployment gender inequality and the unemployment rate levels. This hypothesis was tested for both univariate and panel data country series. We could not reject the hypothesis of the hysteresis in univariate country series using a battery of GLS unit root tests proposed by Carrióni-Silvestre et al. (Econ Theory 25:1754-1792, 2009. However, ILT test of Im et al. (Oxf Bull Econ Stat 67:393-419, 2005) rejected the hypothesis of the hysteresis for panel data of the European Union countries. Finally, the relationship between unemployment gender inequality and disadvantaged gender in inequality depends on the country analyzed. This result suggests that further analysis is needed to identify * Marina Faďoš

Participation of women on the labor market and in employment increased in the recent years, while men seem to be pulling out of the labor force. This is not true for all countries. The aim of this chapter is to give an overview and a comparison of gender employment inequality and the relation with policy implications. The authors have found evidence, based on data, of the opposite behavior. When gender inequality is mentioned, people usually depict women being at a disadvantage. Although this is true for many countries, there are also countries where women are better positioned in the labor market than men. However, this also depends on such characteristics as age, education, and economic sector. Policy implications were proposed based on the obtained findings of this chapter.

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When looking at the duration of unemployment, we observe that women are more unemployed than men in all durations of the unemployment, but we don't see how gender inequality changed with time. To describe the unemployment gender inequality, we need to extract it from the duration of the unemployment tendency. To prove that in the unemployment gender inequality rate series, hysteresis hypotheses is rejected, we used LM unit root test for univariate series and ILT test for duration panel data, where hysteresis hypothesis was rejected in both only when two structural breaks were included in all three territories. It was also proven with the half-life estimator for Spain, Switzerland and the European Union, that structural breaks had only a temporary effect on the unemployment gender inequality rate series by duration of unemployment, but gender inequality remained persistent. With Pesaran CD test, it was proven that unemployment gender inequality rate depended on the duration of unemployment in Spain and the European Union, while this was not true for Switzerland. Gender inequality was increasing with the duration of unemployment in Spain and the European Union, while in the Switzerland was stable and similar in all durations of unemployment. While in Switzerland gender inequality is low, almost non-existent, in Spain and the European Union, it was decreasing over the sample period 1996 to 2016.