The worldwide financial crisis during recent years has raised concerns of negative public health effects. This is notably evident in southern Europe. In Greece, where the financial austerity has been especially pronounced, the prevalence of mental health problems including depression and suicide has increased, and outbreaks of infectious diseases have risen. The main objective in this study was to investigate whether different indicators of health and stress levels measured by a new biomarker based on cortisol in human hair were different amongst comparable Greek and Swedish young adults, considering that Sweden has been much less affected by the recent economic crises. In this cross-sectional comparative study, young adults from the city of Athens in Greece (n = 124) and from the city of Linkoping in Sweden (n = 112) participated. The data collection comprised answering a questionnaire with different health indicators and hair samples being analyzed for the stress hormone cortisol, a biomarker with the ability to retrospectively measure long-term cortisol exposure. The Greek young adults reported significantly higher perceived stress (p<0.0001), had experienced more serious life events (p = 0.002), had lower hope for the future (p<0.0001), and had significantly more widespread symptoms of depression (p<0.0001) and anxiety (p<0.0001) than the Swedes. But, the Greeks were found to have significantly lower cortisol levels (p<0.0001) than the Swedes, and this difference was still significant in a multivariate regression (p<0.0001), after adjustments for potential intervening variables. A variety of factors related to differences in the physical or socio-cultural environment between the two sites, might possibly explain this finding. However, a potential biological mechanism is that long-term stress exposure could lead to a lowering of the cortisol levels. This study points out a possible hypothesis that the cortisol levels of the Greek young adults might have been suppressed and their HPA-axis down-regulated after living in a stressful environment with economic and social pressure.

Background The global financial crisis emerging in 2008 struck Greece especially hard, whereas Scandinavian countries were less affected. This has created a unique opportunity to study the long-term effect of community stress on populations. Increasing frequencies of mental health issues and poorer perceived health among the Greek population have been reported. The physiological marker of long-term stress, cortisol in hair, is applied in this study together with measures of perceived health and stress, depression and anxiety. Our aim was to study self-reported and physiological stress, perceived health, including mental health, in the general population of Greece compared to Scandinavia, in order to assess long-term effects of the economic crisis on these parameters. Methods A cross-sectional comparative study of adult (18–65 years) Primary Health Care visitors from semi-rural areas in Greece (n = 84) and Scandinavia (n = 140). Data collection was performed in 2012, and encompassed a questionnaire with a variety of health and stress indicators as well as hair samples for analyzes of cortisol levels. Results The Greek sample reported significantly poorer overall health (p < 0.0001) than the Scandinavians and a significantly higher perceived stress (p < 0.0001). The Greeks were also less hopeful of the future (p < 0.0001), and to a larger extent fulfilled the HAD criteria for depression (p < 0.0001) and anxiety (p = 0.002). The strongest predictors explaining ill health in logistic regressions were being Greek (p = 0.001) and feeling hopeless about the future p = 0.001, OR = 6.00 (CI 2.10–14.88). Strong predictors in logistic regressions for high perceived stress were anxiety: high (p < 0.0001) and medium (p = 0.0001), as well as medium depression (p = 0.02). Conclusions Greek adult Primary Health Care visitors perceived their health more negatively than the Scandinavians, including a higher presence of depression, anxiety, and a lower hope for the future. The Greeks also reported higher perceived stress, but this was not reflected in higher cortisol levels. The findings presented here, identify possible adverse long-term effects of the economic crisis in the examined Greek population that are not seen in the Scandinavian cohort. These differences may also be interpreted against the background of socio-cultural differences in the northern and south-eastern corners of Europe.

Background: Health behavior varies highly across European countries, and stress and stress-related disorders are commonly seen in European Primary Health Care. Greece has suffered deeply from the 2008 international financial crisis, whereas Scandinavian countries were less affected. Several reports of increasing mental health issues and poorer perceived health among the Greek population have been published. Self-reported health and stress are established public health indicators. A novel physiological marker of long-term stress, cortisol in hair, is at hand and applied in this study. Here, our aim was to study perceived health, including mental health, and self-reported and biological stress in Greece compared to Scandinavia. Methods: A cross-sectional comparative study of adult (18-65) Primary Health Care visitors from semi-rural areas in Greece (n=84) and Scandinavia (n=140). Data collection encompassed a questionnaire with a variety of health and stress indicators and hair samples for analyzes of cortisol levels. Results: The Greek sample reported significantly poorer overall health (p<0.0001) than the Scandinavians and significantly higher perceived stress (p<0.0001). The Greeks were also less hopeful of the future (p<0.0001), and to a larger extent fulfilled the HAD criteria for depression (p<0.0001) and anxiety (p=0.002). There were no significant differences in cortisol levels between the study-groups. The strongest predictors explaining ill health in logistic regressions were being Greek (p=0.001) and feeling hopeless about the future p=0.001, OR= 6.00 (CI; 2.10-14.88). Strong predictors in logistic regressions for high perceived stress were anxiety: high (p=<0.0001) and medium, (p=0.0001), as well as medium depression (p=0.02). Participants with either low or high cortisol levels, and those that reported ill health, had elevated self-reports of high stress, but these did not reach statistical significance.Conclusions: The results suggest that Greek adult Primary Health Care visitors perceived their health more negatively than the Scandinavians, including a higher presence of depression, anxiety, and a lower hope for the future. The Greeks also reported higher perceived stress, not reflected in higher cortisol levels. These findings could be interpreted against the background of socio-cultural differences in northern and southern Europe, and might also reflect the economic crisis that the Greek population experienced at that time.