Plants accumulate a family of hydrophobic polymers known as polyprenols, yet how they are synthesized, where they reside in the cell, and what role they serve is largely unknown. Using Arabidopsis thaliana as a model, we present evidence for the involvement of a plastidial cis-prenyltransferase (AtCPT7) in polyprenol synthesis. Gene inactivation and RNAi-mediated knockdown of AtCPT7 eliminated leaf polyprenols, while its overexpression increased their content. Complementation tests in the polyprenol-deficient yeast Δrer2 mutant and enzyme assays with recombinant AtCPT7 confirmed that the enzyme synthesizes polyprenols of ;55 carbons in length using geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) and isopentenyl diphosphate as substrates. Immunodetection and in vivo localization of AtCPT7 fluorescent protein fusions showed that AtCPT7 resides in the stroma of mesophyll chloroplasts. The enzymatic products of AtCPT7 accumulate in thylakoid membranes, and in their absence, thylakoids adopt an increasingly "fluid membrane" state. Chlorophyll fluorescence measurements from the leaves of polyprenol-deficient plants revealed impaired photosystem II operating efficiency, and their thylakoids exhibited a decreased rate of electron transport. These results establish that (1) plastidial AtCPT7 extends the length of GGPP to ;55 carbons, which then accumulate in thylakoid membranes; and (2) these polyprenols influence photosynthetic performance through their modulation of thylakoid membrane dynamics.

The widespread occurrence of polyprenols throughout the plant kingdom is well documented, yet their functional role is poorly understood. These lipophilic compounds are known to be assembled from isoprenoid precursors by a class of enzymes designated as cis-prenyltransferases (CPTs), which are encoded by small CPT gene families in plants. In this study, we report that RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated knockdown of one member of the tomato CPT family (SlCPT5) reduced polyprenols in leaves by about 70%. Assays with recombinant SlCPT5 produced in Escherichia coli determined that the enzyme synthesizes polyprenols of approximately 50-55 carbons (Pren-10, Pren-11) in length and accommodates a variety of trans-prenyldiphosphate precursors as substrates. Introduction of SlCPT5 into the polyprenol-deficient yeast Δrer2 mutant resulted in the accumulation of Pren-11 in yeast cells, restored proper protein N-glycosylation and rescued the temperature-sensitive growth phenotype that is associated with its polyprenol deficiency. Subcellular fractionation studies together with in vivo localization of SlCPT5 fluorescent protein fusions demonstrated that SlCPT5 resides in the chloroplast stroma and that its enzymatic products accumulate in both thylakoid and envelope membranes. Transmission electron microscopy images of polyprenol-deficient leaves revealed alterations in chloroplast ultrastructure, and anisotropy measurements revealed a more disordered state of their envelope membranes. In polyprenol-deficient leaves, CO2 assimilation was hindered and their thylakoid membranes exhibited lower phase transition temperatures and calorimetric enthalpies, which coincided with a decreased photosynthetic electron transport rate. Taken together, these results uncover a role for polyprenols in governing chloroplast membrane dynamics.

The common scab disease caused by Streptomyces scabies, a soil-dwelling Gram-positive bacterium, is an economically important disease of potatoes and other tuber crops. The lack of effective treatments against this disease accounts for large economic losses globally. Plant extracts were screened to find several that effectively inhibited Streptomyces scabies growth in culture. Seven tinctures showed the greatest inhibition of S. scabies growth by reducing pathogen growth in culture by 75% or more. These extracts were myrrh, garlic, cayenne, barberry, frankincense, wild indigo root, and lavender. Myrrh extract from Commiphora myrrha, a resin made from tree sap, showed strong antibacterial activity by reducing the growth of S. scabies to 13% of the control. Additionally, a flavonoid library was screened to identify several compounds that were effective to control the pathogen growth. The flavonoids that showed the greatest inhibition of Streptomyces scabies growth were sophoraflavanone G, jaceosidin, baicalein, and quercetin. Minimum inhibitory concentrations for the effective flavonoids were calculated to be 6.8 ± 0.4 μM, 100.0 ± 2.1 μM, 202.9 ± 5.3 μM, and 285.2 ± 6.8 μM, respectively. The mean lethal doses for these flavonoids against Streptomyces scabies were 2.0 ± 0.1 μM, 22.6 ± 0.5 μM, 52.9 ± 1.3 μM, and 37.8 ± 1.0 μM, respectively. A live/dead assay showed complete cell death in the presence of sophoraflavanone G indicative of a bactericidal mechanism for flavonoid action on Streptomyces scabies. Scanning electron and transmission electron microscopy imaging showed damaged cell membrane morphologies when Streptomyces scabies was exposed to these flavonoids. Mycelia appeared as flat and deflated structures with contents seen as spewing from branching hyphae with numerous holes and tears in the membrane structure indicative of cell death. Sophoraflavanone G showed the greatest potency and potential as a natural antibiotic from the library of tested flavonoids. These results suggest that these plant compounds act on the pathogen through a bactericidal mechanism involving cell membrane destabilization and disruption leading to cell death.

Scabin is a mono-ADP-ribosyltransferase toxin/enzyme and possible virulence factor produced by the agriculture pathogen, Streptomyces scabies. Recently, molecular dynamic approaches and MD simulations revealed its interaction with both NAD+ and DNA substrates. An Essential Dynamics Analysis identified a crab-claw-like mechanism, including coupled changes in the exposed motifs, and the Rβ1-RLa-NLc-STTβ2-WPN-WARTT-(QxE)ARTT sequence motif was proposed as a catalytic signature of the Pierisin family of DNA-acting toxins. A new fluorescence assay was devised to measure the kinetics for both RNA and DNA substrates. Several protein variants were prepared to probe the Scabin-NAD-DNA molecular model and to reveal the reaction mechanism for the transfer of ADP-ribose to the guanine base in the DNA substrate. The results revealed that there are several lysine and arginine residues in Scabin that are important for binding the DNA substrate; also, key residues such as Asn110 in the mechanism of ADP-ribose transfer to the guanine base were identified. The DNA-binding residues are shared with ScARP from Streptomyces coelicolor but are not conserved with Pierisin-1, suggesting that the modification of guanine bases by ADP-ribosyltransferases is divergent even in the Pierisin family.