Basketball is a popular internationally played sport. With the physical requirements the game has on athletes, players are at risk of injury. Ankle injuries are the most common injury type suffered by basketball players. In this comprehensive review, we present an analysis and overview of the most common ankle injuries among basketball players, including sprains, fractures, impingement, and Achilles tendon pathology. The review includes treatment modalities for such injuries. More research is warranted regarding prevention strategies.

The lateral ligament complex of the ankle is the most frequently injured structure in the body. Although most simple ankle sprains do not result in long-term disability, a significant number do not completely resolve, leading to residual symptoms that may persist for years. The most commonly reported symptoms, particularly among athletes, include instability, re-injury and tendinitis. Ballet dancers are a combination of artist and high-performance athlete; consequently, they are subjected to the same types of injuries as other athletes, including lateral ankle sprains and their sequelae. Furthermore, ballet dancers perform in unusual positions such as en pointe, which places the ankle in extreme plantar flexion, requiring stabilization by surrounding muscles. Dancers’ extraordinary performance demands place them at risk for other ankle injuries as well, including inflammation of several tendons, especially the peroneals. This report reviews the relevant literature to characterize the scope of lateral ankle sprains and sequelae, discuss the importance of the peroneal muscles in ankle stability, and explore a relationship between lateral ankle sprain and ankle tendinitis in ballet dancers. Informal interviews were conducted with physical therapists who specialize in treating ballet dancers, providing a clinical context for this report. An extensive review of the literature was conducted, including electronic databases, reference lists from papers, and relevant reference texts. Numerous studies have investigated ankle sprains and residual complaints; nearly all report that lateral ankle sprains commonly lead to chronic ankle instability. Studies exploring ankle stability have demonstrated that the peroneal muscles play a crucial role in ankle stabilization; EMC studies confirm they are the first to contract during ankle inversion stress. The dancers need for exceptional ankle stabilization may lead to peroneal overuse and tendinitis. Studies have linked peroneal pathology to a history of ankle sprain, but there is no dance medicine literature linking peroneal tendinitis to prior ankle sprains. A growing body of literature confirms myriad connections between lateral ankle sprains, residual instability, peroneal muscle increased activity, and tendinitis. It is our belief that ankle sprains lead to instability, particular en pointe, for which the peroneal muscles attempt to compensate. Their overuse for this static stabilizing function, as well as for dynamic dance movements, then leads to tendonitis. This knowledge may heighten awareness of the potential for developing tendonitis following ankle sprains, and lead to better rehabilitation of the injured ballet dancer.

This article reviews the neuroscience of the Golgi tendon organ, a type of muscle sensory receptor. The intent is also to update and correct erroneous notions regarding its functional significance, particularly related to its involvement in reflexes, proprioception, and stretching techniques used in dance training. Historical research about the function of the Golgi tendon organ (GTO) has led to four erroneous views: 1. The GTO serves a protective function by responding only to muscle tension at the extreme end-range of motion; 2. Sensations from GTOs do not reach the cerebral cortex and therefore serve no role in conscious proprioception and kines-thesia; 3. The GTO and its reflex circuit (autogenic inhibition) prevent its muscle from contracting by “turning it off”; and 4. During contract-relax stretching, the GTO autogenic inhibition reflex circuit is responsible for the muscle relaxation phase and the accompanying increased range of motion. Recent research has shown that these early views are inaccurate. There is new evidence regarding the role of the GTO. 1. A GTO responds to even weak active contractions throughout the range of motion, although GTOs are much less sensitive to passive tension than to active tension. 2. GTO sensations probably do reach the cerebral cortex, buried in the fissure between the motor and sensory cortex “strips.” This information allows dancers to know where their limbs are in space. GTOs also provide unconscious proprioception, via the cerebellum, which helps dancers to learn new motor skills and improve execution of movements. 3. The GTO and its reflex (autogenic inhibition) reduce, but do not shut off, the excitability of the motor neuron and its innervated muscle. The ultimate reflex effect depends on the sum of multiple other inputs on the motor neuron. GTO input may reduce muscle activity, but does not “turn it off.” 4. During contract-relax stretching, the GTO autogenic reflex creates inhibition that lasts only as long as the muscle's active contraction. Therefore, GTO activity is unlikely to significantly affect the subsequent relaxation phase of the stretch. Other receptors and spinal circuits likely serve this function. It is hoped that this updated information will correct several erroneous notions about GTOs that have persisted in the dance kinesiology literature. Thus, dance kinesiology teachers, researchers, and health practitioners can provide accurate information to their students, readers, and patients.