The cellular and molecular basis of sex-dimorphic autoimmune diseases, such as the CNS demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis (MS), remains unclear. Our studies in the SJL mouse model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), reveal that sex-determined differences in expression by innate immune cells in response to myelin peptide immunization regulate EAE susceptibility. IL-33 is selectively induced in PLP-immunized males and activates type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), cells that promote and sustain a nonpathogenic Th2 myelin-specific response. Without this attenuating IL-33 response, females generate an encephalitogenic Th17-dominant response, which can be reversed by IL-33 treatment. Mast cells are one source of IL-33 and we provide evidence that testosterone directly induces gene expression and also exerts effects on the potential for gene expression during mast cell development. Thus, in contrast to their pathogenic role in allergy, we propose a sex-specific role for both mast cells and ILC2s as attenuators of the pathogenic Th response in CNS inflammatory disease.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) preferentially affects women and this sex dimorphism is recapitulated in the SJL mouse model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Here we demonstrate that signaling through c-kit exerts distinct effects on EAE susceptibility in male and female SJL mice. Previous studies in females show that Kit mutant (W/Wv) mice are less susceptible to EAE than wildtype mice. However, male W/Wv mice exhibit exacerbated disease, a phenotype independent of mast cells and corresponding to a shift from a Th2 to a Th17 dominated T cell response. We demonstrate a previously undescribed deficit in c-kit+ type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) in W/Wv mice. ILC2s are also significantly reduced in EAE-susceptible WT females indicating that both c-kit signals and undefined male-specific factors are required for ILC2 function. We propose that deficiencies in Th2-promoting ILC2s removes an attenuating influence on the encephalitogenic T cell response and therefore increases disease susceptibility.

The ability to regulate ongoing inflammation using regulatory T cells (Tregs) is under intense investigation. Strategies to induce and expand Ag-specific Tregs are being developed, and whether various types of Tregs are suppressive in the inflammatory conditions associated with ongoing disease needs to be determined. In this study, we report that TGF-β–induced Tregs (iTregs) and expanded Tregs specific for a major self-Ag in autoimmune gastritis suppress inflammation and associated pathology when administered late in the process of ongoing disease. Transferred iTregs localized to the stomach, maintained Foxp3 and suppressor functions, and engaged several distinct mechanisms to alleviate disease progression. In addition to suppressing the production of inflammatory cytokines in the stomach and preventing the destruction of parietal cells, we show that iTregs secrete numerous chemokines and regulate both iTreg and effector T cell trafficking into the stomach. These data support efforts to use iTregs in therapies to treat autoimmunity and inflammatory diseases and provide novel insight into the biological mechanisms of iTreg-mediated immune suppression.

Selectins are glycan-binding adhesion molecules which mediate the initial steps of leukocyte recognition of endothelium. Cytokines control numerous aspects of CD4 T helper differentiation, but how cytokines control induction of ligands for E- and P-selectin on T helper subsets remains poorly understood. Among 20 cytokines that affect T helper cell differentiation, we identified six, IL-12, IL-18, IL-27, IL-9, IL-25 and TGFβ1, that induce expression of selectin ligands on murine CD4 T cells above the low levels associated with TCR engagement. Collectively, these six cytokines could potentially account for selectin ligand expression on all of the currently defined non-sessile T helper lineages, including Th1, Th2, Th9, Th17 and Treg. Induction of selectin ligand expression by each of these six cytokines was almost completely inhibited by pharmacologic inhibition of p38 MAPK, but not other MAPKs, or by conditional genetic deletion of p38 alpha MAPK. Analysis of the expression of key glycosyltransferase genes revealed that p38 alpha signaling was selectively required for induction of Fut7 and Gcnt1, but not for induction of St3gal4 or St3gal6. Constitutively active MKK6, an immediate upstream activator of p38 MAPK, induced selectin ligand expression equivalent to that of cytokines, and this induction was completely dependent on expression of p38 alpha. Our results identify the repertoire of cytokines responsible for selectin ligand induction on CD4 T cells and provide a mechanistic link between T helper development and T cell migration.

Selectins are carbohydrate-binding adhesion molecules that control leukocyte traffic. Induction of selectin ligands on T cells is controlled primarily by cytokines, including TGF-β1, and requires p38α MAPK, but transcriptional mechanisms that underlie cytokine-driven selectin ligand expression are poorly understood. In this study, we show, using mice with conditional deletions of the TGF-β1–responsive transcription factors Smad2, Smad3, or Smad4, that induction of selectin ligands on CD4 cells in response to TGF-β1 requires Smad4 plus either Smad2 or Smad3. Analysis of CD4 cells from mice with only one functional Smad4 allele revealed a sharp gene dosage effect, suggesting the existence of a threshold of TGF-β1 signal strength required for selectin ligand induction. Both Smad4 plus either Smad2 or Smad3 were selectively required for induction of Fut7 and Gcnt1, glycosyltransferases critical for selectin ligand biosynthesis, but they were not required for St3gal4 or St3gal6 induction. Smad4 plus either Smad2 or Smad3 were also required for induction of Runx transcription factors by TGF-β1. Enforced expression of Runx2, but not Runx1 or Runx3, in Smad2/Smad3 doubly deficient CD4 cells restored selectin ligand expression to wild-type levels. In contrast, enforced expression of Runx1, Runx2, or Runx3 failed to restore differentiation of TGF-β1–dependent Th cell lineages, including Th17, Th9, and induced regulatory T cells. These results show that Smads are directly required for Th cell differentiation independent of Runx induction but only indirectly required via Runx2 for TGF-β1–induced selectin ligand induction on murine CD4 T cells.