The orientational ordering of beta-carotene and crocetin embedded in lamellar model membranes has been investigated by angle-resolved resonance Raman scattering at a temperature well above the phase transition of the lipid chains. It is shown that the ordering of the carotenoids is dependent on the chemical composition of the lipid bilayers. The orientational distribution functions found clearly show that beta-carotene is oriented parallel to the bilayer plane (dioleoyl lecithin) or perpendicular to it (soybean lecithin). For dimyristoyl lecithin at 40 degrees C, egg-lecithin, and digalactosyl diacylglycerol two maxima were found in the orientational distribution: one parallel and one perpendicular to the bilayer surface. Crocetin embedded in soybean lecithin bilayers yields a similar bimodal distribution function. Because of rapid photodegradation no results could be obtained for spirilloxanthin.

Several attempts have been made in the literature to measure money laundering. However, the adequacy of these models is difficult to assess, as money laundering takes place secretly and, hence, goes unobserved. An exception is Trade-Based Money Laundering (TBML), a special form of trade abuse that has been discovered only recently. TBML refers to criminal proceeds that are transferred around the world using fake invoices that under-or overvalue imports and exports. This article is a first test on the well-known prototype models proposed by Walker and Unger to predict illicit money laundering flows and to apply traditional gravity models familiar in international trade theory. To do so, we use a dataset of Zdanowicz of TBML flows from the US to 199 countries. Our test rejects the specifications of the Walker and Unger prototype models, at least for TBML. The traditional gravity model that we present can explain TBML flows worldwide in a plausible manner. An important determinant is trade in which TBML is hidden. Furthermore, our results suggest that criminals use TBML in order to escape the stricter anti-money laundering regulations of financial markets.

Several attempts have been made in the economics literature to measure money laundering. However, the adequacy of these models is difficult to assess, as money laundering takes place secretly and, hence, goes unobserved. An exception is tradebased money laundering (TBML), a special form of trade abuse that has been discovered only recently. TBML refers to criminal proceeds that are transferred around the world using fake invoices that under-or overvalue imports and exports. This article is a first attempt to test well-known prototype models proposed by Walker and Unger to predict illicit money laundering flows and to apply traditional gravity models borrowed from international trade theory. To do so, we use a dataset of Zdanowicz of TBML flows from the US to 199 countries. Our test rejects the specifications of the Walker and Unger prototype models, at least for TBML. The traditional gravity model that we present here can indeed explain TBML flows worldwide in a plausible manner. An important determinant is licit trade, the mass in which TBML is hidden. Furthermore, our results suggest that criminals use TBML in order to escape the stricter anti money laundering regulations of financial markets.

Several attempts have been made in the economics literature to measure money laundering. However, the adequacy of these models is difficult to assess, as money laundering takes place secretly and, hence, goes unobserved. An exception is tradebased money laundering (TBML), a special form of trade abuse that has been discovered only recently. TBML refers to criminal proceeds that are transferred around the world using fake invoices that under-or overvalue imports and exports. This article is a first attempt to test well-known prototype models proposed by Walker and Unger to predict illicit money laundering flows and to apply traditional gravity models borrowed from international trade theory. To do so, we use a dataset of Zdanowicz of TBML flows from the US to 199 countries. Our test rejects the specifications of the Walker and Unger prototype models, at least for TBML. The traditional gravity model that we present here can indeed explain TBML flows worldwide in a plausible manner. An important determinant is licit trade, the mass in which TBML is hidden. Furthermore, our results suggest that criminals use TBML in order to escape the stricter anti money laundering regulations of financial markets.

Rent control provides substantial in-kind benefits to tenants of social housing. In the Netherlands these benefits equal almost 40% of the market rent on average. We show that rent control benefits for the 10% tenants with highest income are 5% points higher than the benefits for the 10% with lowest incomes. Next we provide evidence that rent control influences the housing tenure choice decision. We find that on average rent control reduces transitions within the social housing sector, but not transitions from the social housing sector. Only the 20% tenants with highest incomes postpone moves out of social housing in response to rent control. This suggests that the inequitable distribution of rent control benefits is prolonged by the reduction in transition rates out of social housing. It also suggests that recent policy in the Netherlands that reduces rent control benefits for high income households can increase the mobility of those affected.