Background Alopecia can occur in captive nonhuman primates, but its etiology is poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to assess alopecia and hair cortisol in rhesus monkeys and to identify potential risk factors. Methods Subjects were 117 rhesus monkeys at two National Primate Research Centers. Photographs and hair samples were obtained during routine physicals. Photographs were analyzed using Image J software to calculate hair loss, and hair samples were assayed for cortisol. Results Age, days singly housed, and their interactions contributed to the alopecia model for both facilities. Sex and location changes contributed to the hair cortisol model for Facility 1; sedations contributed for Facility 2. Alopecia and hair cortisol were associated at Facility 1. Conclusions Captive management practices can affect alopecia and hair cortisol. However, there are facility differences in the relationship between alopecia and hair cortisol and in the effect of intrinsic variables and management procedures.

Hair loss is common in macaque colonies. Very little is known about the relationship between psychological stress and hair loss. We initially examined alopecia and hair cortisol concentrations in 198 (89 male) rhesus macaques from three primate centers and demonstrated replicability of our previous finding that extensive alopecia (> 30% hair loss) is associated with increased chronic cortisol concentrations and significantly affected by facility. A subset of these monkeys (142 of which 67 were males) were sampled twice approximately 8 months apart allowing us to examine the hypotheses that gaining hair should be associated with decreases in cortisol concentrations and vice versa. Hair loss was digitally scored using ImageJ software for the first sample. Then visual assessment was used to examine the second sample, resulting in 3 categories of coat condition: 1) monkeys that remained fully haired, 2) monkeys that remained alopecic (with more than 30% hair loss), or 3) monkeys that showed more than a 15% increase in hair. The sample size for the group that lost hair was too small to be analyzed. Consistent with our hypothesis, monkeys that gained hair showed a significant reduction in hair cortisol concentrations but this effect only held for females. Coat condition changed little across sampling periods with only 25 (11 male) monkeys showing a greater than 15% gain of hair. Twenty (7 male) monkeys remained alopecic, whereas 97 (49 males) remained fully haired. Hair cortisol was highly correlated across samples for the monkeys that retained their status (remained alopecic or retained their hair).

Hair loss is commonly used as an indicator of well being in primate facilities, yet it has been shown to also occur in otherwise healthy pregnant and postpartum females. There is significant variability in the incidence of hair loss during these important developmental periods, reasons for which remain unclear. We studied female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta, n = 47) with and without hair loss in pregnancy/postpartum. We hypothesized that, similar to previously published reports, pregnancy would result in an increased likelihood of hair loss, and that hair loss would be correlated with higher hair cortisol concentrations (HCCs). We further hypothesized that hair loss among pregnant females is related to differential maternal investment. We studied a subset of monkeys (n = 26) from mid-to-late pregnancy through peak lactation, some of which exhibited hair loss in the perinatal period (n = 15), and some of which did not (n = 11). We examined fetal measurements, infant birth weight, infant growth rate, and milk yield volume (MYV) in the first 30 days as indices of investment. We found that pregnant monkeys showed a greater incidence of hair loss across the study year (χ = 6.55, P = 0.038), and that mothers with hair loss had significantly higher HCCs in pregnancy than those without (F = 3.8, P = 0.017, η = 0.21). HCCs in pregnancy were correlated with severity of hair loss in the neonatal period (r = 0.42, P = 0.008). Moreover, HCCs in pregnancy were positively correlated with infant birth weight (r = 0.56, P = 0.038), infant growth rate (r = 0.64, P = 0.014), and MYV (r = 0.85, P < 0.001) for alopecic but not non-alopecic mothers. These mothers did not differ in fetal measurements, infant birth weight/growth rate, or MYV. Our results suggest that hair loss in some monkeys, especially during the birthing season, may be a signal of greater physiological stress during pregnancy and differential investment by mothers to their offspring. Am. J. Primatol. 79:e22489, 2017. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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Nonsuicidal self-injurious behavior occurs in the general human population, particularly among teenagers and young adults. Some rhesus macaques also develop self-injurious behavior (SIB) as adolescents or young adults. In both of these cases, the development of harmful behaviors is idiopathic, only coming to the attention of physicians or veterinarians after the disorder is established. Thus, a combination of retrospective, statistical, and empirical procedures are used to understand this disorder. Here, we identify concordances between macaques and humans across five different levels of analysis-(1) form and prevalence, (2) etiology, (3) triggering events, (4) function/maintenance, and (5) therapeutic intervention-and show the value of the cross-translational model (macaques to humans and humans to macaques) in understanding this phenomenon. Substantial concordance is present with respect to the range of severity, the presence of early life stress exposure, and emotional dysregulation. In the macaque model, additional information is available on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis stress response system, possible genetic involvement, and the immediate contextual situations that appear to trigger or exacerbate SIB episodes. In contrast, considerably more information is available from human studies on the effectiveness of various treatment regimens. Veterinarians have drawn on this information to explore these therapeutic interventions in monkeys. We expect that models of SIB will continue to have cross-translational impact as scientists and practitioners move from preclinical to clinical research and treatment.