Aberrant folding and fibrillar aggregation by polyglutamine (polyQ) expansion proteins are associated with cytotoxicity in Huntington's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Hsp70 chaperones have an inhibitory effect on fibril formation and can alleviate polyQ cytotoxicity. Here we show that the cytosolic chaperonin, TRiC, functions synergistically with Hsp70 in this process and is limiting in suppressing polyQ toxicity in a yeast model. In vitro reconstitution experiments revealed that TRiC, in cooperation with the Hsp70 system, promotes the assembly of polyQ-expanded fragments of huntingtin (Htt) into soluble oligomers of approximately 500 kDa. Similar oligomers were observed in yeast cells upon TRiC overexpression and were found to be benign, in contrast to conformationally distinct Htt oligomers of approximately 200 kDa, which accumulated at normal TRiC levels and correlated with inhibition of cell growth. We suggest that TRiC cooperates with the Hsp70 system as a key component in the cellular defense against amyloid-like protein misfolding.

Trigger factor and DnaK protect nascent protein chains from misfolding and aggregation in the E. coli cytosol, but how these chaperones affect the mechanism of de novo protein folding is not yet understood. Upon expression under chaperone-depleted conditions, multidomain proteins such as bacterial beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) and eukaryotic luciferase fold by a rapid but inefficient default pathway, tightly coupled to translation. Trigger factor and DnaK improve the folding yield of these proteins but markedly delay the folding process both in vivo and in vitro. This effect requires the dynamic recruitment of additional trigger factor molecules to translating ribosomes. While beta-galactosidase uses this chaperone mechanism effectively, luciferase folding in E. coli remains inefficient. The efficient cotranslational domain folding of luciferase observed in the eukaryotic system is not compatible with the bacterial chaperone system. These findings suggest important differences in the coupling of translation and folding between bacterial and eukaryotic cells.

The eukaryotic chaperonin, TRiC/CCT (TRiC, TCP-1 ring complex; CCT, chaperonin containing TCP-1), uses a built-in lid to mediate protein folding in an enclosed central cavity. Recent structural data suggest an effective size limit for the TRiC folding chamber of ∼70 kDa, but numerous chaperonin substrates are substantially larger. Using artificial fusion constructs with actin, an obligate chaperonin substrate, we show that TRiC can mediate folding of large proteins by segmental or domain-wise encapsulation. Single or multiple protein domains up to ∼70 kDa are stably enclosed by stabilizing the ATP-hydrolysis transition state of TRiC. Additional domains, connected by flexible linkers that pass through the central opening of the folding chamber, are excluded and remain accessible to externally added protease. Experiments with the physiological TRiC substrate hSnu114, a 109-kDa multidomain protein, suggest that TRiC has the ability to recognize domain boundaries in partially folded intermediates. In the case of hSnu114, this allows the selective encapsulation of the C-terminal ∼45-kDa domain and segments thereof, presumably reflecting a stepwise folding mechanism. The capacity of the eukaryotic chaperonin to overcome the size limitation of the folding chamber may have facilitated the explosive expansion of the multidomain proteome in eukaryotes.folding cage | molecular chaperone | Snu114 homolog | 116 kDa U5 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein component

Recombinant expression of actin in bacteria results in non-native species that aggregate into inclusion bodies. Actin is a folding substrate of TRiC, the chaperonin of the eukaryotic cytosol. By employing bacterial in vitro translation lysates supplemented with purified chaperones, we have found that TRiC is the only eukaryotic chaperone necessary for correct folding of newly translated actin. The actin thus produced binds deoxyribonuclease I and polymerizes into filaments, hallmarks of its native state. In contrast to its rapid folding in the eukaryotic cytosol, actin translated in TRiC-supplemented bacterial lysate folds with slower kinetics, resembling the kinetics upon refolding from denaturant. Lysate supplementation with the bacterial chaperonin GroEL/ES or the DnaK/DnaJ/GrpE chaperones leads to prevention of actin aggregation, yet fails to support its correct folding. This combination of in vitro bacterial translation and TRiC-assisted folding allows a detailed analysis of the mechanisms necessary for efficient actin folding in vivo. In addition, it provides a robust alternative for the production of substantial amounts of eukaryotic proteins that otherwise misfold or lead to cellular toxicity upon expression in heterologous hosts.

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