Concerns have been raised about potential toxic interactions when colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) and chemoradiation are concurrently performed. In 2006, the ASCO guidelines advised against their concomitant use. Nevertheless, with the development of modern radiotherapy techniques and supportive care, the therapeutic index of combined chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and CSFs is worth reassessing. Recent clinical trials testing chemoradiation in lung cancer let investigators free to decide the use of concomitant CSFs or not. No abnormal infield event was reported after the use of modern radiotherapy techniques and concomitant chemotherapy regimens. These elements call for further investigation to set new recommendations in favour of the association of chemoradiation and CSFs. Moreover, radiotherapy could induce anticancer systemic effects mediated by the immune system in vitro and in vivo. With combined CSFs, this effect was reinforced in preclinical and clinical trials introducing innovative radioimmunotherapy models. So far, the association of radiation with CSFs has not been combined with immunotherapy. However, it might play a major role in triggering an immune response against cancer cells, leading to abscopal effects. The present article reassesses the therapeutic index of the combination CSFs-chemoradiation through an updated review on its safety and efficacy. It also provides a special focus on radioimmunotherapy.

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Background: In most clinical trials, gold fiducial markers are implanted in the prostate to tune the table position before each radiation beam. Yet, it is unclear if a cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) should be performed before each beam to monitor a possible variation of the organs at risk (OARs) fullness, especially in case of rectoprostatic spacer implantation. The present study aimed at assessing the inter-and intra-fraction movements of prostate, bladder and rectum in patients implanted with a hyaluronic acid spacer and undergoing prostate stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT). Methods: Data about consecutive patients undergoing prostate SBRT were prospectively collected between 2015 and 2019. Inter-and intra-fraction prostate displacements and volume variation of organs at risk (OARs) were assessed with CBCTs. Results: Eight patients were included. They underwent prostate SBRT (37.5Gy, 5 fractions of 7.5Gy) guided by prostate gold fiducial markers. Inter-fraction variation of the bladder volume was insignificant. Intra-fraction mean increase of the bladder volume was modest (29 cc) but significant (p < 0.001). Both inter-and intra-fraction variations of the rectum volume were insignificant but for one patient. He had no rectal toxicity. The magnitude of table displacement necessary to match the prostate gold fiducial marker frequently exceeded the CTV/PTV margins (0.4 cm) before the first (35%) and the second arc (15%). Inter-and intra-fraction bladder and rectum volume variations did not correlate with prostate displacement. Conclusion: Major prostate position variations were reported. In-room kV fiducial imaging before each arc seems mandatory. Intra-fraction imaging of the OARs appears unnecessary. We suggest that only one CBCT is needed before the first arc.

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