The immune response is a highly specific reaction carried out by means of specialized cells that belong to the immune system. There are two types of immune response mechanisms aimed towards pathogens: non-specific, innate reactions, and specific, acquired reactions. Acquired immunity, characterized by its specificity, is comprised of lymphocytes, including both T cell and B cell populations. The role of B lymphocytes is not limited to the humoral response, though the cellular immune response is carried out mainly by various T lymphocyte subpopulations. The reactions of the humoral and cellular responses complement and stimulate one another mutually - cytokines are their common linking element. The attachment of cytokines to their specific receptors activates a sequence of signals - either intracellular or between the cells of various systems. This organization of respective connections and reactions, including the functional relations between cells of the immune response, in its complexity, is best described as a cytokine network. The response of the immune system to surgical trauma can be looked at from both a local and a general perspective. Not only surgical trauma caused by tissue damage, however, influences the functioning of the immune system, but also the drugs and techniques used during anesthesia. Our article is a presentation of the effects of medications used in anesthesia with respect to their influence on the cytokine network.

Bovine mastitis is a common disease worldwide, and staphylococci are one of the most important etiological factors of this disease. Staphylococcus aureus show adaptability to new conditions, by which monitoring their virulence and antibiotic resistance mechanisms is extremely important, as it can lead to the development of new therapies and prevention programs. In this study, we analyzed Staphylococcus aureus (n = 28) obtained from dairy cattle with subclinical mastitis in Poland. The sensitivity of the isolated strains to antibiotics were confirmed by the disc diffusion method. Additionally, minimum inhibitory concentration values were determined for vancomycin, cefoxitin and oxacillin. Genotyping was performed by two methods: PCR melting profile and MLVF-PCR (multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat fingerprinting). Furthermore, the presence of antibiotic resistance and virulence genes were checked using PCR reactions. The analyzed strains showed the greatest resistance to penicillin (57%), oxytetracycline (25%) and tetracycline (18%). Among the analyzed staphylococci, the presence of 9 of 15 selected virulence-related genes was confirmed, of which the icaD, clfB and sea genes were confirmed in all staphylococci. Biofilm was observed in the great majority of the analyzed bacteria (at least 70%). In the case of genotyping among the analyzed staphylococci (combined analysis of results from two methods), 14 patterns were distinguished, of which type 2 was the dominant one (n = 10). This study provides new data that highlights the importance of the dominance of biofilm over antibiotic resistance among the analyzed strains.

Doctor and patient meet in a circle of feelings determined by suffering. Sensitivity to the suffering is an axis determining the nature of the doctor and patient relationship. The patient's experience of an illness is individual, private, and very often difficult to describe. But the possibility to understand the suffering of another person comes from the fact that suffering is a universal feeling. We propose to enter the world of patient's experience by writing a letter to a doctor, which would reflect their experiences and expectations towards him. This was the task required for 120 students of the second year of medicine and dentistry education.

AbstractsThe text is an effort to present a change which took place at the turn of centuries in teaching Polish as a native language. It is, first of all, about a new sociolinguistic perspective in teaching Polish which appeared at schools. The author analyses four selected series of textbooks used for teaching Polish in a primary school. Special attention was paid to activity books, which are analysed with regard for presence of situational exercises that make students analyse communication situations and their typical language behaviours. They also make them create effective utterances adequate to a specific context. The conducted research shows that a communication perspective is not represented well in school textbooks. Activities focusing on development of communication competence are rare, they are scattered or separated from other language actions. Thus, they do not fit into a general textbook concept, and they often are only a decoration required by the core curriculum.

Models for L1 teaching in schools were under discussion in many countries at the turn of the millennium. The very aim of teaching language was also one of the lively discussions. A debate about the role of grammar in L1 teaching was also pursued. In Poland, the political transformation in 1989 was a natural moment for educational changes. The syllabus reform was presented in the Core Curriculum in 1999. This document has been repeatedly supplemented and modified in recent years, and it has made space for original programs and textbooks. The aim of the article is to theorize, analyse and discuss today's grammar education in the Polish context, focusing on empirical examples from textbooks. It starts with an outline of international debates on grammar in L1 education. Afterwards, it connects these specifically to the Polish situation. In the next section, the methodological clarification of the research which the paper reports on, are outlined. The main body of the paper presents a typology of approaches to grammar instruction which has been conceived in Polish L1 research. This typology makes a distinction between systemic, communicative and functional approaches; the latter is further subdivided into 'linguocentric' and 'textocentric' approaches. The models distinguished are illustrated by grammatical tasks from textbooks. In its concluding considerations, the paper argues that reforming teacher education and amplifying empirical research are the main challenges which must be met in the future.