on Defeating Alzheimer's Disease and other dementias: a priority for European science and society Dementia includes a range of neurological disorders characterized by memory loss and cognitive impairment. The most common early symptom is difficulties remembering recent events. With the development of the disease, symptoms occur such as disorientation, mood swings, confusion, more serious memory loss, behavioural changes, difficulties in speaking and swallowing, as well as walking. Alzheimer Disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia (50-70% of dementia cases). Increasing age is the most important risk factor for AD.In 2012 and 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) presented reports suggesting that Alzheimer Disease and other dementias (ADOD) should be regarded as a global public health priority 1,2 . Similar policy declarations have been presented by the European Union 3 , as well as by some individual countries. These policy declarations acknowledge trends that sometimes are described in terms of an epidemic or a "time-bomb". In 2015, the number of people affected by dementia worldwide is estimated to be almost 47 million and the numbers are expected to reach 75 million by 2030 and 131 million by 2050, with the greatest increase in low and middle income countries. The main reason for the increase is the global aging trend, since dementias are associated with a high age-specific prevalence, i.e., increasing prevalence with higher age. The global economic costs of dementia were estimated to be more than 600 billion USD in 2010 6 and 818 billion USD in 2015 5 . The direct costs in the medical and social care sectors, 487 billion USD, represent 0.65% of the aggregated global gross domestic products (GDP), which is an enormous economic impact of a single group of disorders, especially considering that 87% of the costs occur in high income countries. Care of people with dementia impacts several sectors in the society with the social care (long term care and home services) and informal care sectors constituting the greatest proportions -even greater than direct medical care 6 . In cost of illness studies, European cost estimates in 2010 ranged between 238,6 billion USD 6 and 105,6 billion € 7 .However, the economic and societal burden of ADOD corresponds to the aggregate burden of people with dementia and their next of kin. The progressive nature of dementia can influence the whole life situation for families over many years. So far, no cure or substantial symptom relieving treatment is available for ADOD. Thus, the impact of this terminal disease is already today enormous, and given the predictions for the future, ADOD represents an enormous challenge for any society, and particularly to the ageing European society.Further knowledge is needed regarding the causes of ADOD. A more complete understanding of the disease mechanisms is required for new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. There is also a need to establish new cell-based and animal models representing, as far as possible, major clinical component...

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What is known about this topic• Social isolation and loneliness are risk factors for poor mental and physical health.• They are particularly problematic in old age due to reduced social networks, decreasing economic resources and changes in family structures. What this paper adds• Loneliness is more frequently researched than isolation; depression and cardiovascular health are the most researched health outcomes.• Still little is known about interventions that would affect AbstractThe health and well-being consequences of social isolation and loneliness in old age are increasingly being recognised. The purpose of this scoping review was to take stock of the available evidence and to highlight gaps and areas for future research. We searched nine databases for empirical papers investigating the impact of social isolation and/or loneliness on a range of health outcomes in old age. Our search, conducted between July and September 2013 yielded 11,736 articles, of which 128 items from 15 countries were included in the scoping review. Papers were reviewed, with a focus on the definitions and measurements of the two concepts, associations and causal mechanisms, differences across population groups and interventions. The evidence is largely US-focused, and loneliness is more researched than social isolation. A recent trend is the investigation of the comparative effects of social isolation and loneliness. Depression and cardiovascular health are the most often researched outcomes, followed by well-being. Almost all (but two) studies found a detrimental effect of isolation or loneliness on health. However, causal links and mechanisms are difficult to demonstrate, and further investigation is warranted. We found a paucity of research focusing on at-risk sub-groups and in the area of interventions. Future research should aim to better link the evidence on the risk factors for loneliness and social isolation and the evidence on their impact on health.Keywords: health, loneliness, mental health, older people, scoping review, social isolation loneliness and health, about causal mechanisms or service use of isolated or lonely older people.• Future research should link the evidence on risk factors for loneliness and social isolation and the evidence on their impact on different health domains, with longitudinal designs needed to understand associations.