We examined the relationship between perceptions of household tap water quality and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms during the Flint, Michigan, water crisis in 2015-2016. The Speak to Your Health Community Survey is a community-based participatory component of the health surveillance system in Genesee County, Michigan. Perceptions of household tap water quality was added to the 2015-2016 survey wave after inadequate official response to concerns over water quality after a change in Flint's municipal water supply. Respondents (N = 786) also completed a brief PTSD screening tool. We examined the relationships of perceived household tap water quality to PTSD symptomatology and positive screening criteria for PTSD, controlling for sociodemographics. Perceived tap water quality predicted PTSD symptomatology and positive screening criteria for PTSD, independent of sociodemo-

The occurrence of heavy metals in the soil was measured over a period of several years to determine background concentrations in a heavily urbanized watershed in southeastern Michigan. A spatially dispersed sample was collected to capture the inherent variability of the soils and historic land use. The analysis focused on 14 metals (antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium, and zinc) that are part of the USEPA's list of the 129 most common pollutants. Metal concentrations were measured at three depths: near-surface (<0.5 m), shallow subsurface (0.5-10 m), and depths greater than 10 m across six soil units in glacial terrain. Additional analyses assessed the metal concentrations in each depth profile across three general land use categories: residential, commercial, and industrial. Metal concentrations were the highest in the near-surface with Pb present at concentrations averaging 15.5 times that of background in industrial areas and approximately 16 times background in residential areas. Cadmium, Hg, and Zn were also present in surface soils at levels of several times that of background. The highest concentrations of each of these metals were present in the clay-rich soils located in the eastern, more urbanized and industrialized part of the watershed. Metals detected at elevated concentrations decreased in concentration with increasing depth and distance from the urbanized and industrialized center of the watershed. Statistically significant differences in the concentrations of heavy metals were also noted between the land use categories, with Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Zn observed within industrial areas at mean concentrations several times greater than background levels.

/ To test the effectiveness of Michigan's soil erosion control law, 30 construction sites were evaluated in the east-central part of the state. The analytical framework lumped nine best management practices (BMPs) most closely related to the law into three categories: slope stabilization, soil stabilization, and water management. All sites were in the land clearing or foundation/framing stage of construction and were evaluated within 2 days after a rainfall event. Only four of the sites performed above the mean of the scoring scale, with the categorical scoring of BMPs indicating the worst performance for slope stabilization measures. The poor results suggest a failure to integrate scientific knowledge of erosion control with policy. A fundamental problem is the lack of basic site data on soil, topography, and hydrology, resulting in the incorrect application of BMPs, such as staging, filter fences, and berms. The current institutional framework for soil erosion control also provides disincentives to mitigate local erosion problems.

The occurrence of heavy metals in the soil was measured over a sites located throughout the state to evaluate naturally period of several years to determine background concentrations in a heavily urbanized watershed in southeastern Michigan. A spatially occurring heavy metal concentrations. The Cox and Coldispersed sample was collected to capture the inherent variability of vin study was a regional study designed to evaluate the soils and historic land use. The analysis focused on 14 metals naturally occurring background concentrations but did (antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, not differentiate between different soil types. In Michilead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium, and zinc) that are gan, evaluations of metals in soil have been conducted part of the USEPA's list of the 129 most common pollutants. Metal by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources concentrations were measured at three depths: near-surface (Ͻ0.5 m), (1991) and Kesler-Arnold and O'Hearn (1990). Alshallow subsurface (0.5-10 m), and depths greater than 10 m across though these latter two studies included southeastern six soil units in glacial terrain. Additional analyses assessed the metal Michigan, their evaluation of the naturally occurring concentrations in each depth profile across three general land use concentrations of metals in the soil was restricted to categories: residential, commercial, and industrial. Metal concentrations were the highest in the near-surface with Pb present at concentra-rural areas of the state. Holmgren et al. (1993) evaluated tions averaging 15.5 times that of background in industrial areas and the concentrations of Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu, and Ni in agriculapproximately 16 times background in residential areas. Cadmium, tural soils of the country and Miller and McFee (1983) Hg, and Zn were also present in surface soils at levels of several times focused on Cd, Zn, Cu, and Pb in industrial soils of that of background. The highest concentrations of each of these metals northwestern Indiana. More recently, Ma et al. (1997) were present in the clay-rich soils located in the eastern, more urbanstatistically analyzed the concentrations and distribuized and industrialized part of the watershed. Metals detected at tions of 11 metals in Florida soils, and Alkhatib and elevated concentrations decreased in concentration with increasing O'Connor (1998) studied background levels of priority depth and distance from the urbanized and industrialized center of the pollutant metals in surficial soils from 106 urban and watershed. Statistically significant differences in the concentrations of non-urban sites in Rhode Island. The Rhode Island heavy metals were also noted between the land use categories, with Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Zn observed within industrial areas at mean study, which used data obtained from the investigation concentrations several times greater than background levels.

A model for estimating the remediation costs at contaminated sites is developed, in which the predictor variable is a composite of surface, subsurface, and contaminant risk factors. Calibration of the model is performed at 83 sites in an urbanized watershed with diverse surface geology in southeastern Michigan. These test sites exhibited different extents of contamination, including some where only soil was contaminated, and others where soil and groundwater were contaminated. The model was then applied to 79 sites with multiple contamination extents within different watersheds in North America, Europe, Australia, and Africa. The results indicate a very high correlation between the estimated and actual remediation costs at these sites. This model thus has the potential for providing reliable estimates of remediation costs across a broad array of soil and groundwater contamination scenarios, including dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) contamination in sandy soil and lead in clay soil.