Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Main resultsWe included 16 studies with 1750 participants. The studies were 2 to 26 weeks long and compared an oromucosal spray with a plantderived combination of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) (10 studies), a synthetic cannabinoid mimicking THC (nabilone) (two studies), inhaled herbal cannabis (two studies) and plant-derived THC (dronabinol) (two studies) against placebo (15 studies) and an analgesic (dihydrocodeine) (one study). We used the Cochrane 'Risk of bias' tool to assess study quality. We defined studies with zero to two unclear or high risks of bias judgements to be high-quality studies, with three to five unclear or high risks of bias to be moderatequality studies, and with six to eight unclear or high risks of bias to be low-quality studies. Study quality was low in two studies, moderate in 12 studies and high in two studies. Nine studies were at high risk of bias for study size. We rated the quality of the evidence according to GRADE as very low to moderate. Primary outcomesCannabis-based medicines may increase the number of people achieving 50% or greater pain relief compared with placebo (21% versus 17%; risk di erence (RD) 0.05 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.00 to 0.09); NNTB 20 (95% CI 11 to 100); 1001 participants, eight studies, lowquality evidence). We rated the evidence for improvement in Patient Global Impression of Change (PGIC) with cannabis to be of very low quality (26% versus 21%;RD 0.09 (95% CI 0.01 to 0.17); NNTB 11 (95% CI 6 to 100); 1092 participants, six studies). More participants withdrew from the studies due to adverse events with cannabis-based medicines (10% of participants) than with placebo (5% of participants) (RD 0.04 (95% CI 0.02 to 0.07); NNTH 25 (95% CI 16 to 50); 1848 participants, 13 studies, moderate-quality evidence). We did not have enough evidence to determine if cannabis-based medicines increase the frequency of serious adverse events compared with placebo (RD 0.01 (95% CI -0.01 to 0.03); 1876 participants, 13 studies, low-quality evidence). Secondary outcomesCannabis-based medicines probably increase the number of people achieving pain relief of 30% or greater compared with placebo (39% versus 33%; RD 0.09 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.15); NNTB 11 (95% CI 7 to 33); 1586 participants, 10 studies, moderate quality evidence). Cannabisbased medicines may increase nervous system adverse events compared with placebo (61% versus 29%; RD 0.38 (95% CI 0.18 to 0.58); NNTH 3 (95% CI 2 to 6); 1304 participants, nine studies, low-quality evidence). Psychiatric disorders occurred in 17% of participants using cannabis-based medicines and in 5% using placebo (RD 0.10 (95% CI 0.06 to 0.15); NNTH 10 (95% CI 7 to 16); 1314 participants, nine studies, low-quality evidence).We found no information about long-term risks in the studies analysed. Subgroup analysesWe are uncertain whether herbal cannabis reduces mean pain intensity (very low-quality evidence). Herbal cannabis and placebo did not di er in tolerability (very low-quality evi...

Based on limited evidence, we cannot recommend a specific drug for the treatment of fatigue in palliative care patients. Fatigue research in palliative care seems to focus on modafinil and methylphenidate, which may be beneficial for the treatment of fatigue associated with palliative care although further research about their efficacy is needed. Dexamethasone, methylprednisolone, acetylsalicylic acid, armodafinil, amantadine and L-carnitine should be further examined. Consensus is needed regarding fatigue outcome parameters for clinical trials.

Quantitative sensory testing (QST) is a standardized and formalized clinical sensitivity test. Testing describes a subjective (psychophysical) method that entails a cooperation of the person to be examined. Within its framework, calibrated stimuli are applied to capture perception and pain thresholds, thus providing information on the presence of sensory plus or minus signs. The presented QST battery imitates natural thermal or mechanical stimuli. The aim is to acquire symptom patterns of sensory loss (for the functioning of the thick and thin nerve fibers) as well as a gain of function (hyperalgesia, allodynia, hyperpathia) with a simultaneous detection of cutaneous and deep tissue sensibility. Most of the tested QST parameters are normally distributed only after a logarithmic transformation (secondary normal distribution)-except the number of paradoxical heat sensations, of cold and heat pain thresholds, and vibration detection thresholds. A complete QST profile can be measured within 1 h. QST is suitable not only for clinical trials but also in practice as a diagnostic method to characterize the function of the somatosensory system-from the peripheral nerve fiber receptor to the projection pathways to the brain.

We provide a systematic review and meta‐analysis on the efficacy, tolerability, and safety of cannabinoids in palliative medicine. The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus, and http://clinicaltrials.gov, and a selection of cancer journals were searched up until 15th of March 2017. Of the 108 screened studies, nine studies with a total of 1561 participants were included. Overall, the nine studies were at moderate risk of bias. The quality of evidence comparing cannabinoids with placebo was rated according to Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation as low or very low because of indirectness, imprecision, and potential reporting bias. In cancer patients, there were no significant differences between cannabinoids and placebo for improving caloric intake (standardized mean differences [SMD]: 0.2 95% confidence interval [CI]: [−0.66, 1.06] P = 0.65), appetite (SMD: 0.81 95% CI: [−1.14, 2.75]; P = 0.42), nausea/vomiting (SMD: 0.21 [−0.10, 0.52] P = 0.19), >30% decrease in pain (risk differences [RD]: 0.07 95% CI: [−0.01, 0.16]; P = 0.07), or sleep problems (SMD: −0.09 95% CI: [−0.62, 0.43] P = 0.72). In human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients, cannabinoids were superior to placebo for weight gain (SMD: 0.57 [0.22; 0.92]; P = 0.001) and appetite (SMD: 0.57 [0.11; 1.03]; P = 0.02) but not for nausea/vomiting (SMD: 0.20 [−0.15, 0.54]; P = 0.26). Regarding side effects in cancer patients, there were no differences between cannabinoids and placebo in symptoms of dizziness (RD: 0.03 [−0.02; 0.08]; P = 0.23) or poor mental health (RD: −0.01 [−0.04; 0.03]; P = 0.69), whereas in HIV patients, there was a significant increase in mental health symptoms (RD: 0.05 [0.00; 0.11]; P = 0.05). Tolerability (measured by the number of withdrawals because of adverse events) did not differ significantly in cancer (RD: 1.15 [0.80; 1.66]; P = 0.46) and HIV patients (RD: 1.87 [0.60; 5.84]; P = 0.28). Safety did not differ in cancer (RD: 1.12 [0.86; 1.46]; P = 0.39) or HIV patients (4.51 [0.54; 37.45]; P = 0.32) although there was large uncertainty about the latter reflected in the width of the CI. In one moderate quality study of 469 cancer patients with cancer‐associated anorexia, megestrol was superior to cannabinoids in improving appetite, producing >10% weight gain and tolerability. In another study comparing megestrol to dronabinol in HIV patients, megestrol treatment led to higher weight gain without any differences in tolerability and safety. We found no convincing, unbiased, high quality evidence suggesting that cannabinoids are of value for anorexia or cachexia in cancer or HIV patients.

BackgroundWorldwide approximately 7,000 rare diseases have been identified. Accordingly, 4 million individuals live with a rare disease in Germany. The mean time to diagnosis is about 6 years and patients receive several incorrect diagnoses during this time. A multiplicity of factors renders diagnosing a rare disease extremely difficult. Detection of shared phenomena among individuals with different rare diseases could assist the diagnostic process. In order to explore the demand for diagnostic support and to obtain the commonalities among patients, a nationwide Delphi survey of centers for rare diseases and patient groups was conducted.MethodsA two-step Delphi survey was conducted using web-based technologies in all centers for rare diseases in Germany. Moreover, the leading patient support group, the German foundation for rare diseases (ACHSE), was contacted to involve patients as experts in their disease. In the survey the experts were invited to name rare diseases with special need for diagnostic improvement. Secondly, communal experiences of affected individuals were collected.Results166 of 474 contacted experts (35%) participated in the first round of the Delphi process and 95 of 166 (57%) participated in the second round. Metabolic (n = 74) and autoimmune diseases (n = 39) were ranked the highest for need for diagnostic support. For three diseases (i.e. scleroderma, Pompe’s disease, and pulmonary arterial hypertension), a crucial need for diagnostic support was explicitly stated. A typical experience of individuals with a rare disease was stigmatization of having psychological or psychosomatic problems. In addition, most experts endured an ‘odyssey’ of seeing many different medical specialists before a correct diagnosis (n = 38) was confirmed.ConclusionThere is need for improving the diagnostic process in individuals with rare diseases. Shared experiences in individuals with a rare disease were observed, which could possibly be utilized for diagnostic support in the future.